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GRAMMAR: 



PART OF A COURSE ON LANGUAGE, 



|)KgartJt> for imtaciiott in % Wi. J5. Corps of Cakts. 



REV. J. W. FRENCH, D.D., 

// 

CHAPLAIN, AND PROFESSOR OP ETHICS AND ENG LI 811 *8T UD IES 
IN THB UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY, WEST POINT. 



$*b fork: 
B. TAN NOSTRAND, 192 BROADWAY. 

1863. 



PETim i 
-FT 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, 

BY REV. J. W. FRENCH, D. D., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 

Southern District of New York. 



f Transfer 



& 



Engineers School Li by. 



* June 29,1931 



ALVORD, PRINTER. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The present work results from no little observation of the deficiencies attendant 
upon ordinary grammatical instruction. 

la the ordinary grammars, these deficiencies appear to be in the Method, the Classi- 
fication, the Phraseology, the Multiplication of arbitrary Exceptions, and in the 
Iu utility for improvement in other studies. 

In seeking a remedy, the author has found that the last thing to be sought was in- 
novation. In grammar, this is wholly out of place, for in that subject, ever under 
men's thoughts, the oldest principles are best. These deficiencies are themselves the 
innovations. The present work will be found to accord with the earliest and simplest 
views of grammar. 

1. Method. — The material in our common grammars is not liable to censure. The 
substance of all good grammars must be nearly the same. But the arrangement of 
that material has been such, that what nature, and reason, and the bewildered pupil 
demanded first, has been put last. It has been made impossible for the learner to 
proceed from the known to the unknown. But so to proceed is the indispensable con- 
dition for all human learning. 

The common method has been to begin with letters ; to proceed to syllables ; to 
parts of speech ; to sentences ; and to do this under the heads of Orthography, Ety- 
mology, and Syntax. This method must cause confusion. 

Under letters, for example, the use of capitals is to be taught. The rule is given 
that a capital letter is to begin the first word of an independent sentence ; proper 
nouns ; common nouns, when personified ; and to be used for the pronoun, I, and the 
interjection, 0. But the perplexed student has not yet been told of the sentence ; nor 
of nouns, proper and common ; nor of pronouns ; nor of interjections. This is, cer- 
tainly, not passing from the known to the unknown. 

Under nouns, cases are to be explained. He is told that in the Nominative Case, & 
noun is toe subject of a finite verb ; and in the Objective, the object of a transitive 
verb, participle, or preposition. But verbs have not been explained ; nor finite, as 
the contrast to the infinitive ; nor transitive verbs, nor participles, nor prepositions. 
This, again, is not passing from the known to the unknown. 

The effect of this erroneous method is felt through the whole subject of Grammar. 

The remedy is a simple one. It is, to begin with the sentence, as the grammatical 
unit. This is the method adopted in the present work. 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

2. The Classification. — In ordinary grammars, the parts of speech have been clas- 
sified under etymology, and etymology has been said to have Words as its subject. 

But the parts of speech are not words apart from their relations and uses in a sen- 
tence. They are the names of functions performed in a sentence. They must be clas- 
sified under the same head to which we refer the sentence, that is, Syntax. The 
parts of speech and the rules of syntax are but counterparts to each other. They 
are based on the relations of words in a sentence. 

In this work, the parts of speech have been put where they belong, under Syntax. 
Syntax is viewed as analytic or synthetic. The sentence, analyzed, shows the parts of 
speech. The parts, re-constructed, show what are usually named " Rules of Syntax." 
These two are so placed as to throw light upon each other. The definition of a part of 
speech, as the Adverb, implies a rule of syntax for the Adverb, which grows from the 
definition. In turn, the rule of syntax for the Adverb implies the corresponding de- 
finition, and gives a test for determining an Adverb in the most difiicult sentence. In 
this way, it has been possible to multiply test on test for all the parts of speech, es- 
pecially for Substantives, so that the learner may always have certainty as to the 
part of speech which is under his hand. 

Also, in this work, that subject has been put under Etymology, which alone belongs 
there, viz.: Words, apart from their relations and uses in a sentence. 

3. Phraseology. — In every science or art, a correct nomenclature is indispensable. 
Each subject should be divided into its parts, parts which nature has given, (and na- 
ture is always simple,) parts which will stand forth definitely and perpetually. To 
each head and subdivision thus found, names must be given. Those names must be 
such, in their etymology, as to correspond, by their sense, to the things represented. 
Tnese names should also be those sanctioned by usage and antiquity. 

Tho ordinary grammars violate these principles. They employ, incorrectly, the 
terms Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and give no one head to Prosody. Under Or- 
thography they embrace too much, since they include sounds, or language as spoken, 
when the word itself declares that it treats of language written, and therein teaches 
correct representation only. Under Etymology, they embrace too much and too little, 
since they include parts of speech, and not the derivation and formation of words. 
But the very name, Etymology, declares that it treats of words as regards the source 
of their form and sense, while parts of speech are names for sentential functions. 

Under Syntax, they embrace too little, since they include the rules of government 
and agreement, based on sentential relations, and do not include the functions of tho 
parts of speech equally based on those relations. But the word Syntax shows that it 
must treat of words as combined together in sentences. It must, then, treat of rela- 
tions, and of function, as resulting from relation. 

Under Prosody, they give no definition of prosody itself; no statement of the one 
subject to which it applies. Some place under it Elocution and Versification. Murray 
very properly considered under Prosody the Pronunciation of Words, and the laws of 
accent and quantity. Later grammarians have thrown out that subject altogether. 
They have defined English Grammar to be " the art of speaking and writing the En- 
glish language correctly," and yet give the pupil no guide to the pronunciation of the 
words which he is daily employing. 

But Prosody has for its subject tho representation of sentences, in the forms neces- 
sary to satisfy the ears and eyes of men. The word shows that the laws of such re- 
presentation are drawn originally from poetry, because there their development is 
most full ; and thence extended to prose. 

Such are some of tho defects in the use of terminology, serving as specimeas. 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

To avoid these defects, the author has sought for the simplest division, one which, 
resting on reason and nature, could be perpetual. 

He finds two subjects. They are, the Sentence and the Word. In grammar, wc» 
simply want to know how these are made, and how these are to be correctly repre- 
sented. This is all. 

The making of the sentence belongs to Syntax ; the making of the word, to Ety- 
mology ; the representation of the word, to Orthonomy ; the representation of the 
sentence, to Prosody. 

Three of the terms just given, are the old terms of grammar, rightly applied, ac- 
cording to their primitive meanings. The name Orthography is retained as a subdi- 
vision, addressing the eye by correct writing. With it is joined Orthoepy, as the cor- 
respondent subdivision, addressing the ear by correct speaking. The two have been 
placed under Orthonomy, as the head of the division. The name has been made to 
deviate as little as possible from the terms orthography and orthoepy. 

The order given has been such as to give the sentence first, as the unit, and prosody 
last. And thus the four heads are Syntax, Etymology, Othonomy, and Prosody. This 
method is indicated in the opening of English Grammar. 

4. The Multiplication of Exceptions. — Many grammars are filled with arbitrary 
exceptions and counter-exceptions. He who attempts to learn them finds himself in a 
labyrinth without a clue, and is led to regard grammar as a science without principles. 

Every science may be so treated by those who will not ascend high enough to reach 
comprehensive principles, that will embrace all facts, and bring under rule what at 
first seemed to be exceptions and deviations. 

To avoid this defect, the author has, at the outset, defined language as " a system." 
We are near the truth when we say there is no irregularity in language. In it, every 
fact fixed by universal consent and usage, has a reason. 

He has then sought to lay down principles, clear, simple, rational, and to make 
every part of grammar but the application of those principles : By regarding the 
parts of speech as functions, and not categories ; by reducing those functions to 
eight ; by recognizing it as a law in language, that the same word may perform, now 
one, and now another of these eight functions ; by naming this law abnormal use ; by 
presenting it in two simple canons ; by extending abnormal use to synthetic syntax ; 
he believes he has given great relief to pupils, especially to those who are old enough 
to use reason, and not merely memory. 

If there are facts not included, he prefers leaving them for the observation of the 
pupil through life. 

5. Harmony with other Studies. — Grammar should be so presented as to be a help, 
and not a hindrance, in other studies. 

Our common grammars are not so written as to assist the learner in the acquisition 
of other languages. They furnish no proper basis for arrangement and style in writ- 
ing. They give no clue for understanding the technical terms employed in the arts 
and sciences. 

But, in the present work, grammar is made subservient to improvement elsewhere. 

It opens with a chapter introductory to a course on language, in Logic, Rhetoric, and 
Literature. The definitions, the divisions, the rules for study there given, and the 
note, form the foundation for such course. This subservience is preserved throughout 
the work. Principles are given, which will be wanted in each of those subjects. 
Nothing is given which must afterward be unlearned and contradicted. 

It then places Universal Grammar before English, with a comprehensive view of 
the languages. The principles common to all precede those belonging to English, that 
the learner may have assistance in acquiring other languages. 



d INTRODUCTION. 

Under Etymology, it shows how any one who has never studied Latin and Greek 
may yet acquire a good knowledge of the common words and technical terms drawn 
from those sources. This will he of great advantage, as the pupil, in passing into 
other sciences or arts, will need to know the sense of the terms which they employ. 

Such are the deficiencies which have been noted in the popular works on this sub- 
ject, and such the mode by which the author has sought to avoid them. He would 
not speak thus freely of any single work. But censure may be rightly and unsparing- 
ly given where the works of nearly a century have followed a wrong direction. 

The plan and aim of the present work may now be understood. It lays a found- 
ation for studies on Language. It then treats of Universal Grammar. This simplifies 
the subject so much, that the author recommends the same order in works designed 
for children. After seeiDg the common principles, and the families of all languages, 
it passes to English Grammar. It begins with the sentence, and thence advances to 
the Rules of Syntax. It then shows how sounds, and out of sounds, words are formed. 
It teaches, next, the rules of spelling and accentuation by principles. It then givea 
the rules for writing, speaking, and reading correctly. 

Throughout it is practical, insisting constantly upon written and spoken exercises. 

Among its minor recommendations, is the selection of sentiments from Lord Bacon, 
presenting maxims and sentiments needed in the conduct of life, and among the res- 
ponsibilities incident to the military profession. 

The writer believes it to be a work which all learners of grammar might use with 
advantage. He knows that it meets the wants of those minds for whom it was pre- 
pared, since he knows how they act, and how they need to grasp each subject which 
they learn. 

THE AUTHOR. 
West Point, 1S61. 



PLAN OF THE COURSE, 

CHAPTER I. 



1 . The subject in this part of the course of study is Language. 

2. Language is a system of signs for representing objects 
in classes, and for expressing and directing thought and emo- 
tion. 

3. In language, we consider its elements and their combinations. 
4 Its elements are words, with their parts and subdivisions. 

5. The combinations of language are the arrangements of its elements, 
which are necessary for securing certain specified objects. 

6. There are four such objects. They are: 1. Correctness in speaking 
or writing any language which we employ; 2. Reasoning; 3. Per- 
suasion ; 4. Pleasure, united with instruction. 

7. Four sciences or arts give direction how to use language for these 
objects. They are, for the first, Grammar ; for the second, Logic ; for 
the third, Rhetoric ; for the fourth, Literature.* 

8. The elements of language, it might be thought, should be referred 
to a separate science. 

This, however, is not the fact. By general consent, grammar in- 
cludes not only the combinations necessary for correctness, but also the 
elements of language. 

* Note for Instructors, Readers, and Mature Pupils. Language, the basis of these 
subjects, has two great functions — representation and direction. 

Language represents objects. These objects are without us, within us, or in Speech. 
Those without us are called Things ; those within, Thoughts; those of Speech, Signs 
or Words. These objects are in classes. By a class is meant some whole, divisible 
into parts. Things exist in classes, as animal, man, Peter. Peter belongs to the class 
min, and man to a larger class called animal. Words exist in classes, as Substantive, 
Noun, Proper Noun. Tho Proper Noun belongs to the class Noun, and Noun to the 
class Substantive ; Substantive, to a head called Parts of Speech ; Parts of Speech, to 
a division of Grammar ; Grammar to Sciences of language : these, to the head of 
Sciences. Thoughts, including emotions, exist in classes, as reasoning, calculation, 
addition, are expressions for ways of thinking. Addition is one mode of calculating, 
calculating is one mode of reasoning, and reasoning is one mode of thought. 



6 PLAN OP THE COURSE. 

Grammar is, therefore, a science which treats of the ele- 
ments of language, and gives rules for combining them in cor- 
rect communication. 

9. Grammar is universal or special. Universal Grammar 
considers the elements and rules of combination belonging to 
all languages in common : Special Grammar considers those 
which belong to one. 

The divisions of Special Grammar are determined by the language 
which is applied. "We have, thus, Greek, .Latin, French, Spanish, 
Italian, German, or English Grammar, according to the language which 
we study and learn to use correctly. 

10. The first subject is Universal Grammar. 

11. Before that is taken, the learner should observe four 
important aids, which he will require. They are : 1. Skill in 
drawing subjects into the form of tables. 2. Exactness in 
definitions. 3. The constant use of a good dictionary. 4. 
Constant practice in written and spoken exercises. 

They will be needed equally in all other studies as in those which 
regard language. 

I. Tables are representations of the wholes and parts of 
subjects, by means of larger and smaller braces. 

A brace is a crooked line, with two curves meeting in its centre, or 
opposite to the head of the division, and is used to connect two or more 
words, or points, thus : 

o« .{gar 1 

Putting any subject in that form, is called tabulating. Tabulating is 
of the greatest utility, because it presents a subject with its subordinate 
divisions orderly to the eye and mind in a single view. The pupil should 
learn the practice, in his studies, as soon as possible. 

Language also directs. It directs our own mental operations. By using its signs for 
thought, we assist thought. It also directs the thoughts and feelings of others. A 
perfectly logical argument can lead the understanding to assent. An eloquent oration, 
or touching poetry, may move the feelings. 

We are thus brought to the definition of language as it is viewed in the present 
course. 

Language is a system of signs used for representing objects in classes, and for direct- 
ing, as well as expressing, thought and feeling. (2) 

This definition involves several points. 3. Language is a system. The English, for 
example, is like a machine whoso parts are mutually dependent, while all conspire to 
a common end. If it were not a system it could not perform its functions, which are 
to rep?-esent and direct. 2. Language has signs. It is significant. By signs, for the 
ear and eye, it represents all objects of sensation or consciousness. 3. It is the funda- 



PLAN OF STUD Y. 7 

II. Definitions are explanations which present the wholes 
and parts of what is defined by a series of words, in which 
the class is placed first, and the subdivision afterwards, so as 
to become less and less general to the last. 

e. g. : A Pronoun is a word substituted for a Noun. The class here 
is word. The first division is substitute ; the subdivision, substitute for 
a Noun. Geography is a science, descriptive of the earth's surface. 
The class is science; the first division, a descriptive science; the 
subdivision, a descriptive science of the earth. But geology, also, is a 
descriptive science of the earth. Another subdivision must therefore bo 
made. It is that of surface of the earth. With this addition the defini- 
tion of geography is completed. 

Most definitions in books of education exemplify this rule more or 
less strictly. Mathematical definitions do so, strictly. A strict defi- 
nition is one made according to the rule. 

The pupil, therefore, should learn how to analyze, and thus to remem- 
ber and state a definition. 

He should not only read a strict definition over once, but should con- 
sider its parts one by one, regarding the first as the head of a class, and 
the others as its subdivisions. 

In remembering it so as to answer the question so often put to him ; 
"What is such a thing ? he should bring up, in his mind, the class which 
the definition divides. 

III. Another assistance is in a good dictionary. The learner 
must look out every word of which he does not know the 
meaning, the pronunciation, and the spelling. 

IV. Another assistance is peculiarly needed in all studies 
based on language. It is that of practice, by means of writ- 
ten and spoken exercises. 

Theory must be reduced to practice, and by practice must theory 
be understood. In the learning of language, the plan of nature is, to 
put practice before theory. We learn to speak before we learn rules for 
speaking. 

mental law of language that it represents objects in classes, as general or particular. 
This underlies the whole subjectof Grammar. It is tho basis in Logic, for Terms, Pro- 
positions, Syllogisms, and Method. It pervades the rules tor words, sentences, style in 
Rhetoric-, and Literature. Great difficulties have been caused by men forgetting that this 
is not only a fact in language, but the fundamental law of all language and all thought. 

4. Language expresses thought. This is seen in every sentence which we speak or v/rit<\ 

5. Language expresses feeling. This is seen in the Interjections of Grammar, in all 
Rhetoric, and throughout Poetry. 6. Language directs our thoughts. Logic tel's how 
to arrange our thoughts before we write or speak, and draws the rules of arrangement 
from the natural system of language. 7. Language directs thought and feeling in 



PLAN OF THE COURSE. 

12. He who studies faithfully the subjects now under examination, 
will acquire correctness and skill in using his own language ; he will un- 
derstand the materials and resources of his mother tongue ; he will ac- 
quire mental discipline, since experience has fully shown that studies, 
based on language, unfold, not one, but all the faculties of the mind. 

RECAPITULATION. 



Language. 



1. Elements Grammar. 



2. Combinations 
for purposes : 



f 1. Tables. 
2. Definitions. 



Means for 

IMPROVEMENT, 1 3 . A DictioIlaIy . 



4. Practice. 



1. Correctness in ) nnk „ > 
Communication. \ Gramma R- 



2. Reasoning... I Logic. 

3. Persuasion. . . > Rhetoric. 

4. Pleasure with l^™*,™™' 
Instruction.... \ ?gg£ 



Benefits,. 



c 



Attainments. 
Discipline. 



others. This is seen in Rhetoric, and in the persuasion of the orator. It is witnessed in 
Poetry, as where a tragedy moves multitudes to tears. 

As each language is a system, it has analogies. These analogies form principles. 
The principles induce common consent. Common consent forms usage. Usage deter* 
mines the authorized mode for speaking correctly. 

Analogy and usage thus become guides for the laws of language. 

But usage itself is guided by analogy, and by principles. Hence, a language, ap- 
parently the most irregular, such as the English, will be found reducible to regular- 
ity, if we look far enough for the analogies and principles which usage has followed. 

This inference will receive application specially when we consider the rules for spell, 
ing and accentuation in English. 



PART I. 
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 



13, Universal Grammar is a necessary introduction to English Gram- 
mar. 

It is a science of language which treats of the elements and 
rules for combination for correctness in speech and writing, 
which belong to all languages in common. 

14, In Universal Grammar we consider its divisions and its material. 

I. Its divisions are two. They are rudimental and sentential. 

II. The rudimental includes the elements apart from a sentence, which 
are common to all languages. The word " sentence " will be immediately 
explained. (1*1.) 

III. The sentential includes the combinations with the rules requisite 
for a correct sentence, which are common to all languages. 

TV. The material of Universal Grammar is found in the languages of 
the world. 

CHAPTER IL 

Divisions of Universal Grammar. 

15, (a) Rudimental Division. The elements of language, it has been 
said, are words, with their parts and subdivisions. 

The parts of words are syllables and letters. 

Id the word grammar, are two syllables, the one gram, and the other 
mar. The first syllable has the four letters g, r, a, m. The second syl- 
lable has the three letters, m, a, r. 

Letters and syllables will be fully examined under English Grammar. 

For the present, it is sufficient to consider letters, as the elements of 

syllables ; syllables as the elements of words ; and words as the elements 

of sentences. 

1* 



10 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

The vowels are letters which can be sounded by themselves, as a, e, i, 
o, u. 

The consonants are sounded with the help of a vowel, as eb, ed, et, 
el; b, c, d. 

A syllable is a vowel sound, with or without consonants, formed bj> 
one impulse of the breath in speaking. 

There are so many syllables in a word as there are distinct vowel 
sounds. The vowel is the soul of the syllable. 

16. The subdivisions of words include many classes. Of these classes, 
only two need to be now enumerated. They are primitives and deriv- 
atives. 

A primitive word is one from which other words can be derived. De- 
rivative words are those which are drawn from a primitive. For exam- 
ple, corn-press, de-press, op-press, suip-press r im-press-ibility, are deriva- 
tive words, drawn from the word press. The word press, as referred to 
them, is primitive. 

11. (b) Sentential Division, In all languages, men, when they speak, 
form sentences. 

A sentence is a union of words in some assertion. 

By it we assert one thing of another, e. g* "Ice is cold. 11 This is a 
sentence. Coldness is asserted of ice. Three words are so united as to 
make that one assertion. Again: "Lead is not light. 11 It is asserted thai 
lightness does not belong to lead. Four words are so united as to make 
that one assertion. 

To form a complete sentence, there must be union of words, 
and assertion by words. Assertion is implied in commands 
and questions. 

18. The assertion is affirmative or negative. 

19. The combinations used in framing a sentence are shown by, 1, the 
Parts of a Sentence ; 2, the Parts of Speech ; 3, Logical Analysis ; 4, 
General Syntax. 

Sec. I. — The Parts of a Sentence. 

20. There are three parts in every simple sentence, 1. That 
of which we assert ; 2. That which we assert ; 3. That by 
which we assert ; and they are called the Subject, the Predicate, 
and the Copula ; as " James is playing." 

* For example. — (exempli gratia.) 



PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 11 

21. The Subject is that member in the sentence of which 
the assertion is made. 

22. The Predicate is- that which is asserted of the subject. 

23. The Copula is that which unites the Subject and Predi- 
cate, by asserting one of the other. 

Thus, in the sentence, u James is playing." The subject is, James. It 
is of James we are talking, and of whom we are telling something. 

The Predicate is, playing. What we are telling of James is, that he is 
playing. 

The Copula is the word is. By it we unite James and playing to- 
gether, and perform the telling. The Copula tells. The Predicate is 
told. The Subject is told of. 

24. The Copula is frequently called the Substantive Yerb. 

Sec. II. — Parts of Speech. 

25. Parts of Speech are heads to which words can be re- 
duced, according to their uses in a sentence. 

26. In Universal Grammar, eight parts of speech are re- 
garded. Of these, two are the essentials of a sentence ; and 
two attendants on the essentials. The remaining four are 
particles. 

The Essentials are the verb and the substantive. 
The Attendants are the adverb and the adjective. 
The Particles are the conjunction, interjection, prepo- 
sition, and pronoun. 

27. The essentials and their attendants are called the Ma- 
terial Parts of Speech. The particles are called the Formative 
Parts of Speech. 

Material Parts of Speech. 

Essentials. 

28. There are two Parts of Speech, without which no sen- 
tence can be made. These are, the verb and the substantive. 
They are therefore called the Essential Parts of Speech. The 
reason why they are so, is, that as every sentence is an as- 
sertion, there must be a word by which we assert, and a word 
of which we assert. 



12 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

(1.) YEBB. 

29. The Verb is the word in a sentence which unites the 
whole sentence, and asserts existence or action. 

Passion is included under action, as the one implies the other. 

A Yerb signifies : to be, to act, or to be acted on. It always asserts 
that something is, or that something is done. What is done, is done by 
something, or to something, e. g.: "Water is fluid," " Birds fly," " Snow is 
melted" "Winds move waves." 

In the first of these sentences, is a verb, expressing existence in the 
word "is;" in the second, a verb expressing action, in the word "fly;" 
in the third, a verb in the words, "is melted," expressive of being acted 
on ; in the fourth, a verb expressive of action on something, by ano- 
ther thing, in the word "move." 

Such is the verb. It is so named (from verbum, the word) as being 
the word, which is the soul of a sentence. 

30. Understanding the verb, we can now extend the definition of a 
sentence. 

A sentence is a union of words in some assertion made by 

MEANS OF A VERB. 

31. It follows from this, that in every passage of speech or 
writing that forms connected sense, there must be so many 
sentences as there are verbs expressed or understood. 

32. The divisions of Yerbs depend on the next Part of Speech — the 
Substantive. 

(2.) SUBSTAOTIYE. 

33. A Substantive is a part of speech, which is or can be 
subject to the assertion of a verb in a sentence. 

By being subject is meant that it will make sense when put before a 
verb. It is then subject to the assertion of a verb. In the sentence 
u water is fluid," water is a substantive. It makes sense when put be- 
fore the verb is. It is the subject of which the assertion is made, that 
it is fluid. The word birds, in the sentence, "birds fly," is a substantive. 
It is a subject of the verb "fly." It makes sense with the verb "fly." The 
assertion is made about birds. Such is the substantive. It is so named 
from two words, (sub sto,) which mean, to stand under. The substantive 
stands under, and receives the assertion of a verb. The word subject 
means put under. Substantive and subject have, thus, like meanings. 



PARTS OP speech: material., 13 

34. The word substantive is general. It includes any word, sentence, 
or part of a sentence, which can be used substantively by being subject 
to the assertion of a verb. Whatever is made subject to the assertion 
of the verb of a sentence, becomes a substantive in that sentence. 

35. A verb may be made to cease from assertion, and to become a sub- 
stantive. When this is done, it is said to be in the Infinitive Mood. By 
the Infinitive Mood is meant that the word no longer acts in a sentence 
only, as a verb, but also as a substantive. In the English language, this 
is signified by the little word " to" being placed before the word usually 
employed as a verb. e.g.: "To deceive is wrong." Here "to 
deceive," is a substantive. It means, deception is wrong. In Universal 
Grammar, therefore, the infinitive is regarded as a substantive. 

Divisions of Verbs and Substantives, 
Verbs, divided. 

36. The divisions of Verbs and Substantives can now be understood. 

37. Yerbs are classified according to their sense or use. 

38. Yerbs express Beings or Action, (with passion as the reciprocal 

of ACTION.) 

39. They are hence divided, according to sense, into Neuter and Active 
verbs. 

40. A Neuter Verb is one which does not express action, but being, as 
he is, thou art, I am, man exists. 

41. An Active Verb is one which expresses action, as, lie runs, Tie strikes. 

42. Active Verbs are divided into Transitive and Intransitive. 

43. The word Transitive is from two words, {trans eo,) the first mean- 
ing over, and the second, to go. That is transitive which can go over 
from one thing to another. 

Active Transitive Verbs, are those which require an object, because the 
action is represented as going over from the subject to that object, as 
"Brutus killed Cadsar." 

44. The object of an Active Transitive Yerb is a Substantive. By 
object is meant, that against, or to which, an action is directed. 

45. Active Intransitive Verbs are those which do not require an object, 
as Peter walks. 

46. Being is expressed by the verb " to be," in some of its forms. 
Every other verb can be expressed by union with the verb " to be," as 

light shines— *\ight is shining. 

The verb "to be," can be expressed alone. It is, therefore, sometimes 
called the Substantive Yerb, because it stands under all others. 

2 



14 UNIVEKSAL GRAMMAR. 

If Passion be distinguished from Action, the classes of verbs, accord- 
ing to sense, are three : Neuter, Active and Passive. But every Passive 
Verb must imply a correspondent Active Transitive Verb. 

4t. Yerbs are divided, according to their use in a sentence, into Tran- 
sitive, Intransitive, and Copulative Yerbs. 

48. A Transitive Yerb is one which requires a Substantive as its ob- 
ject to complete the sense, e. g.: A strikes B. 

49. An Intransitive Yerb is one which does not require a substantive 
as its object, e. g.: He walks. 

50. A Copulative Yerb is one used as a Copula, and which can take 
after it a Substantive, which is a Predicate for a subject before it. 
Man is an animal. The child shall be named Alexander. 

51. Both classifications should be in the mind, as both are needed, and 
will be used. 

Substantives, divided. 

52. Among substantives are names. These names are called nouns.* 
A noun is a substantive, which names objects. 

53. Nouns are divided into proper and common. 

54. A proper nouu is the name of an individual, as Alexander, London, 
Europe, We thus name the man, Alexander; the City of London; the 
Continent of Europe. 

55. A common noun is the name of a class to which individuals be- 
long : as man, city, continent. 

This division of nouns applies the first part of the definition oi 
language, which declares it to represent objects in classes. 

These are the two parts of speech, which are indispensable for a sen- 
tence in all languages. They are the Yerb and the Substantive. 

Attendants. 

56. There are two parts of speech, which are attendant on 
the verb and the substantive. These are, the adverb and 
the adjective. The one attendant on the verb is called the 
adverb, from two words, (ad verhum,) signifying to the verb. 
The one attendant on the substantive is called the adjective, 
from two words, (adjacto,) signifying what is thrown, or put 
to, something. The adjective is put to the substantive. We 
can now define. 

*Substanlves are a class, and nouns are a division of that class. That is a sub- 
stantive which can be used as the subject of a verb. This is not always a noun, as 
will be seen after advancing in grammar. 



PABTS OP speech: formative. 15 

(3.)— ADJECTIVE. 

57. An adjective is a word which qualifies a substantive. 

Thus, we may qualify Water as cold, hot, clear, muddy, deep, shallow 
We may qualify Birds as old, young, blue, black. We may qualify Snow 
as early, late, deep, light. All these words, which thus qualify, are ad- 
jectives. Wild tempests roar. In this sentence, wild is an adjective, 
because it qualifies tempests. 

58. Among adjectives may be Articles. 

Articles are limiting adjectives, attached to common nouns. 

They limit the meaning of the class to which the noun belongs, as a 
man, the man, the men. They are indefinite or definite. In these exam- 
ples, the articles are a and the. The indefinite is a, and the definite is the. 
Articles are not found in all languages. In English, the indefinite is a 
or an ; the definite, the, 

(4.)— ADVERB. 

59. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, and may 
also modify adjectives and other adverbs. 

In the sentences, "wild birds fly rapidly," "light snow is melted 
easily," the words rapidly and easily are adverbs. They are so, because 
the first modifies the verb "fly," and the second the verb "is melted." 
They tell how the birds fly, and how the snow is melted. Thus, adverbs 
modify verbs. But adverbs can modify adjectives and other adverbs, 
as in these sentences: "very light snow is melted easily," "some wild 
birds fly very rapidly." The word very is here an adverb, modifying 
the adjective, light, in the first sentence, and modifying the adverb, 
rapidly, in the second sentence. 

Such are the Attendant Parts of Speech. They are, the adverb and 
the adjective. 

60. The two essential, and the two attendant, make, toge- 
ther, the four material parts of speech. All derivation from 
primitives is made by the formation of these. 

Thus : from the verb compress, are formed the substantive compression; 
the adjective compressive; and the adverb compressively, Thi3 is uni- 
versally the case. 

The Material Parts of Speech are thus found to be verbs, substan- 
tives, adjectives, and adverbs. 

Formative Parts op Speech. 

61. There are four Parts of Speech in general grammar, 
which are assistants to the whole sentence, or to substantives 



l8 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

tence, there must be a verb. If there be a verb, there must be a sub- 
ject, which is a substantive. Thus, the two essentials must exist — the 
verb and substantive. 

The verb and substantive are liable to be modified and qualified; 
hence, the two attendants, the Adverb and Adjective, must exist. 

The sentences may need connection and substitution. The Conjunction 
and Interjection must therefore exist. 

The Substantives, also, may require connection and substitution. 
Therefore, the Preposition and Pronoun must be furnished. 

II. From facts and observation. 

The examination of all languages shows them in all. Let any man 
mark all the sentences he makes in speaking, or ever has spoken, and 
he will find them. Every man has made them since he began to speak. 

13. It is always useful to assist the mind of the learner by his eye. 
It is needful, also, to see this subject in one connected view. Such is the 
design of the following tabular views. 

In the first table, the directions of the arrows indicate the relations of 
the four Material Parts of Speech. Prom the Adverb, one arrow runs to 
the Yerb, and one to the Adjective ; while one, in a curve, turns upon 
the Adverb itself, to indicate the rule, that "the Adverb modifies Verbs, 
Adjectives, and other Adverbs." The first arrow suggests, also, through 
the eye, the meaning of the word Adverb, (ad verbum) because it runs 
to the Verb. 

One arrow runs from the Adjective to the Substantive, beause it quali- 
fies the Substantive. This suggests, through the eye, the meaning of 
the word Adjective, (adjacio) because it is put to the Substantive. 

One arrow runs from the Substantive to the Yerb, because it is the 
subject of the Yerb. This suggests, through the eye, the meaning of 
the word Subject, (sub j acid) because it is put under — thrown under the 
assertion of the Yerb. 

The standing-place of the Substantive is, also, in its position, under the 
Yerb, to indicate the meaning of the word Substantive, (sub sto,) and to 
show it as standing under, and liable to stand under, the assertion of 
the Yerb. The meaning of verb, as the word on which the sentence de- 
pends, (verbum,) is also exhibited. For, by following the direction of all 
the Arrows, we see them all terminating in the Yerb. By reversing the 
direction, we find them all running into, or, as the old expression is, mi- 
grating into the Adverb. 

14. The whole table presents to the eye the simple, and universal 
theory of language, from which were drawn, in old time, the names 
of the parts of speech. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: TABULAR VIEW. 19 

Tab. 1. 
Verb. ^ 

A 



Material 

Parts of 

Speech are 




Substantive. <^L 



Essentials 
for a Sentence. 



v 

-Adjective 

Attendants 

non Essentials. 



75. A second table for the Formative Parts of Speech, or particles, ia 
made in the simplest manner, by bringing down from the table above, 
the two words, sentence and substantive, and affixing to them the words 
connection and substitution. 



Tab. 2. 



Formative C 
Speech ] 



, Connection [ion 
Parts of J l 



are for I Substitution {for 



Sentences, 

forming, 

or 

Substantives, 

forming, 



( 1. Co* 

( 2. INT 



.. Conjunction, 
and 
Interjection. 

1. Preposition, 

and 

2. Pronoun. 



76. The two tables may now be drawn into one, and the arrows laid 
aside. 

Tab. 3. 



Xfl 



o & 






Material, 



Formative, 



1. Essentials ( 1. By Assertion, -{ Yerb. 

for i 2. By being subject to I g UBSTAimm 
a sentence, ( an Assertion, ( 

2. Attendants j 1. On the Verb, < Adverb. 

on Essentials ( 2. On the Substantive,- ■{ Adjective. 

( 1. For the j 1. By connection, - ■{ Conjunction. 
Sentence, \ 2. By substitution, --! Interjection 
2. For the j 1. By connection, - < Preposition. 
Substantive, \ 2. By substitution, -\ Pronoun. 



77. As the four leading parts of speech all terminate in the Yerb, so 
is it with the four which are subordinate. They also show it to be the 
word of a sentence. 



20 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

It will be seen by the table that they assist the sentence and the sub- 
stantive by furnishing connection and substitution. But the sentence de- 
pends upon the verb, without which there can be no sentence. The sub- 
stantive, also, is a word which is or can be subject to the assertion of a 
verb. The substantive, therefore, depends upon the verb. Thus, the 
formatives depend on the sentence and substantive, and these on the 
verb. It is thus seen how the verb is that word in a sentence to which 
all the others are related, and why the name was bestowed by ancient 
wisdom, from verbum, the word. 

78. The pupil has thus obtained, from Universal Grammar, a simple 
and comprehensive view of the Parts of Speech, which he can apply in 
studying the English language, or any foreign language which he may 
ever wish to acquire. 

19. Before proceeding farther, he should now apply what he has 
learned, by a few exercises. In all the studie3 based on language, he 
will find peculiar value in the familiar maxim, that " practice makes 
perfect." 

TJie first attainment for the pupil in language, is to distinguish and de- 
fine the Parts of Speech, by the uses of words in a sentence. 

This is usually called Etymological Parsing. 

Passing. 

80. Parsing means, generally, reducing any thing into its parts. Tho 
name is taken from the word part. It is finding the parts of some whole. 
The whole is parsed by being parted. For s, in parsing, put t, and the 
meaning can never be forgotten. Parsing is parting. 

81. In grammar, the whole which is to be parted is the sentence. 
The Sentence is sometimes called the grammatical unit. As, in arith- 
metic, you can divide one into parts, as one-half, one-third, one-fourth; 
so you can divide a sentence into parts. As you can make all other 
numbers by constantly adding the number one, so, by adding one sen- 
tence to another, you make all discourse addressed to the eye or ear. 
A book is a collection of sentences. 

82. The different kinds of parsing depend on the kinds of division or 
parting in a sentence. 

83. The parts of a sentence are members, clauses, words; and of 
words, syllables and letters. "Words may be referred to a sentence, or 
not so referred. 

84. Of these we now consider words as referred to a sentence. 

Parsing, as applied to words referred to a sentence, is usually di- 
vided into Etymological and Syntactical parsing. Strictly, these are 
Analytic and Synthetic parsing. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: PARSING. 21 

85. Analytic (Etymological) parsing simply classifies the words undei 
the heads of the parts of speech, by seeing what each word does in a 
sentence. It thus analyzes the sentence to find the parts of speech, 
and is therefore Analytic. 

86. Synthetic (Syntactical) parsing considers the relations of the parts 
of speech in a sentence, and includes Analytic (Etymological) parsing. 
It puts together the parts of speech by their relations, and is therefore 
synthetic. 

81. It is Analytic (Etymological) parsing which is now to be the sub- 
ject for practice, under rules. 

ftuLES for Exercise in Analytic (usually called Etymological) 

Parsing. 

88. (1.) For an exercise, written, write out the first sentence of the 
exercise with sufficient space between the lines for intervening letters. 
Over each word, beginning always with the verb, mark its name as a 
part of speech, using the first letter or letters of that name, as Y for 
Verb, and S for substantive. Do the same with the second sentence, and 
so through the list. 

98. (2.) In determining what part of speech each word is, observe the 
following directions. 

Do not consider what each word means by itself, in a dictionary, but 
what it does in the sentence before you. This is a fundamental rule. 

See which one of the eight works given to the eight parts of speech 
is performed by the word. These are, to assert ; to stand subject to as- 
sertion; to qualify; to modify; to give connection or substitution for 
Sentences and Substantives. 

90. Remember, if a word asserts that something is, or something is 
done, it is. a Yerb. 

If a word, or any form of language, is, or can be subject to the asser- 
tion of a verb, it is a Substantive. 

If it qualify a substantive, it is an Adjective. 

If it modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb, it is an Adverb. 

If it connect, or can connect, two sentences, it is a Conjunction. 

If it substitute, for a sentence, a single word, expressing feeling and 
will, without being a Yerb, it is an Interjection. 

If it connect a substantive with the verb, or some other word in the 
sentence, it is a Preposition. 

If it be a substitute for a substantive, it is a Pronoun. 

91. If you are still in doubt, refer to the lists given below, which are 
provided for use in subsequent lessons. 



22 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

Sentences for Exercises, written. 

"Prosperity makes friends, but adversity tries them." 

" Vice gives deformity to man." 

" Unselfish feelings belong to true friendship." 

" Nimble tongues frequently stumble." 

" Constancy in friendship, under short misunderstandings, shows a 
generous mind." 

" When pride eometh, then cometh shame." 

" Speech is peculiar to man. It is given to him for great uses; but, 
alas 1 we often turn it to bad purposes." 

(2.) For an exercise, not written, take a book and name each part of 
speech in successive sentences, and give the reason, e.g. : In the full 
sentence above, " makes" is a verb, because it asserts, and unites the 
sentence. Let reader, pupil, or instructor stop at this part of the subject 
till every part of speech can be named. 

92. From this point till the subject of grammar terminates, let there 
not be a lesson — let there not be a day in which the learner does not 
parse. An exercise in parsing must be supposed to accompany every 
lesson. 

Lists. 

93.(1.) Verbs. — Is, was, will be; draw, drive, push, strain, press.; 
shrink, feel, breathe, walk, run. The verbs express Being and Action. 

(2.) Substantives. — Alexander, Csesar, Napoleon, London, Paris, 
New York ; man, animal, stone, plant, tree ; thought, feeling, intention ; 
goodness, badness, corruption, adversity, prosperity. Among Substan- 
tives are the names of objects. 

(3.) Adjectives. — Good, bad, high, low, long, short, bright, dark; beau- 
tiful, ugly ; old, young ; constructive, destructive. Adjectives express 
qualities of objects. 

(4.) Adverbs. — Beautifully, hideously, righteously, wickedly ; swiftly, 
slowly, darkly, brightly. Adverbs express the modifications of Actions 
and of Qualities. 

(5.) Conjunctions. — And, as, because, for, if, that, then, since; or, nor, 
either, neither, than, though, yet, but, whether, whereas, unless ; as — as ; 
as— so; if— then; either— or; whether— or; though— yet. The Con- 
junctions express relations suited to sentences. 

(6.) Interjections.— Oh I ah! alas! ha! indeed! good! bravo! ho! 
ahoy! hurrah! hail! adieu! good-day! The Interjections express 

EMOTIONS. 



LOGICAL ANALYSIS. 23 

(7.) Prepositions. — Above, below; before, behind, within, without ; 
about, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, athwart, beside, 
between, beyond, down, for, from, in, into; of, off; on, out, over, past, 
since, through, till, to, toward, under, unto, up, with, within, without. 
Prepositions express position or motion in place or time, and thus re- 
lations for words. 

(8.) Pronouns. — I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they ; myself, thyself, 
himself, herself, itself, yourselves ; who, which. Pronouns represent. 



Sec. 3. — Logical Analysis. 

94. The second attainment for the pupil, in language, is ability to analyze 
a sentence, and thus to see the forms of the sentences he is to use in writing 
and speaking. 

The following explanations and directions are for this attainment. 

95. Logical Analysis in grammar is a mode of dividing a 
sentence, so as to show the relations, within the sentence, of 
the parts of speech, and also the relations of that. sentence to 
others with which it is grammatically connected. 

The following example will serve for illustration: "The perfectly 
wise Creator most mercifully bestowed a faculty for speech." 

96. It will be seen by the tables, and by following the arrows, that 
all the parts of speech in any sentence, are connected with the verb 
directly, or through the substantive. 

97. There are two cases. The first is that in which the copula (23), 
which is always implied (46), is not expressed nor used. 

98. In this case, the parts of speech in any single sentence, which 
are directly attendant on the verb, or connected with it, form, with the 
verb, what is called the Logical Predicate, while the verb itself is 
called the Grammatical Predicate. Thus, " bestowed" is the Yerb, and 
also the Grammatical Predicate. " Most mercifully bestowed a faculty 
for speech" is the Logical Predicate. 

99. All those parts of speech in any sentence, which are attendant 
on, or connected with the substantive, which is the subject of the verb, 
form, together with that substantive, the Logical Subject, and the sub- 
stantive itself, the Grammatical Subject. "Creator" is the Grammatical 
Subject; "the perfectly wise Creator," the Logical Subject. 

100. If the verb have no attendant nor connected words, it forma 
both the Grammatical and Logical Predicate, as, " the wind blows:' 




UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

101. If the substantive have no attendant nor connected words, it 
forms both the Grammatical and Logical Subject, as "time flies." 

102. The second case (97), is that in which the copula is expressed 
or used. It is then followed by a substantive or adjective, as, man is 
an animal" "man is mortal" 

103. The substantive is then a class or correspondent for the subject. 

104. In this case the substantive or adjective following, forms the 
grammatical predicate, and with the attendant and connected words, 
the logical predicate. The rules for the subject remain as before. 

105. The verb is then named the copula, because it connects or copu- 
lates the predicate with the subject. 106. It may be modified. 

101. The divisions of a sentence thus made, are drawn from grammar; 
the heads under which they are reduced, (subject, copula, and predicate) 
are borrowed from logic. The word, "subject," is used in both, and 
lias its grammatical sense and logical sense. 

108. When the verb "to be" is the only one used in a sentence, the 
words that form the predicate keep their grammatical relations un- 
changed, e.g.: "man is mortal." Mortal is the predicate, but, gram- 
matically, it qualifies man. Man is an animal : animal is the predicate, 
but, grammatically, it is the subject after the verb, while man is the sub- 
ject before the verb, in the grammatical sense of the term subject. This 
is the case in all such sentences when an adjective or substantive forms 
the Predicate. 

Sentences. 

109. Sentences are simple or compound. 

110. A simple sentence is formed by a single verb making one asser- 
tion : as, rain falls. 

111. A compound sentence is formed by the union of two or more 
simple sentences, and consequently by two or more verbs: as, when 
rain falls, then the grass will grow. 

112. The parts of a compound sentence are called its members, and the 
divisions of members are called clauses. In the compound sentence just 
given, are two members. If we should add a clause to the first member 
and say, " when the rain falls in its proper season, then the grass will 
grow," there would be two clauses in the first member. 

113. Members of a compound sentence are dependent or serial. 

114. They are dependent members when the assertion of one is made 
to result from the assertion in another. In the example just given, the 
second member is dependent on the first. The growing of the grass is 
spoken of as a result from the falling of the rain. 

115. They are serial members when no necessary dependence of one 
upon the other is expressed; as, "Ccesar came; he saw; he conquered; 




LOGICAL ANALYSIS. 23 






(1.) Prepositions^ Above, below; before, behind, within, without; 
j^bout, across, after, lagahist, alqn|| amid, among, around, athwart, beside, 
between, beyond, down, for/Troml in, into ; of, off; on, out, over, past, 
since, through, till, to, toward, under, unto, up, with, within, without. 
Prepositions express position or motion in place or time, and thus re- 
lations for words. 

(8.) Pronouns, — I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they ; myself, thyself, 
himself, herself, itself, yourselves ; who, which. Pronouns represent. 
\ 



Sec. 3. — Logical Analysis. 

94. The second attainment for the pupil, in language, is ability to analyze 
a sentence, and thus to see the forms of the sentences he is to use in writing 
and speaking. 

The following explanations and directions are for this attainment. 

95. Logical Analysis in grammar is a mode of dividing a 
sentence, so as to show the relations, within the sentence, of 

.JthB parts of speech, and also the relations of that sentence to 
others with which it is grammatically connected. 

''fiie following example will serve for illustration: "The perfectly 
wise Creator most mercifully bestowed a faculty for speech." 

96. It will be seen by the tables, and by following the arrows, that 
all the parts of spteeoh in any sentence, are connected with the verb 
directly, or through u&mistanlive. 

91. All those parts of speech in any single sentence which are directly 
attendant on the verb, or connected with it, form, together with the 
verb^what is called the Logical Predicate, while the verb itself is 
called tle^rammatkal^Predicate. 

98. An exception is, when the verb "to be" is the only one em- 
ployed. In the example, "bestowed" is the Yerb, and also the Gram- 
matical Predicated "most mercifully bestowed a faculty for Speech " i3 
the Logical Predicate. 

99. All those paits of speech in any sentence, which are attendant 
on, or conncetecUsa$i the substantive, which is the subject of the verb, 
form, together with that substantive, the Logical Subject, and the sub- 
stantive itself, the Grammatical Subject. "Creator" is the Grammatical 
Subject; "the perfectly wise ^Creator," the Logical Subject. 

100. If the verb have no attendant nor connected words, it forms 
both the Grammatical and Logical Predicate, as, " the wind blows" 



24 UNIVERSAL GEAMMAB. 

101. If the substantive have no attendant nor connected words, it 
forms both the Grammatical and Logical Subject, as "time flies." 

104. When the verb "to be" is the only verb employed in a single 
sentence, it is followed by a substantive or adjective, as "man is an 
animal" "man is mortal." 

105. In this case the substantive or adjective following, forms the 
grammatical predicate, and with the attendant and connected words, 
the logical predicate. The rules for the subject remain as before. 

106. The verb is then named the copula, because it connects or copu- 
lates the predicate with the subject. 

107. The divisions of a sentence thus made, are drawn from grammar ; 
the heads under which they are reduced, (subject, copula, and predicate) 
are borrowed from logic. The word subject is used in both, and has its 
grammatical sense and logical sense. 

108. When the verb "to be" is the only one used in a sentence, the 
words that form the predicate keep their grammatical relations un- 
changed, e.g.: " man is mortal 11 Mortal is the predicate, but, .gram- 
matically, it qualifies man. Man is an animal : animal is the predicate, 
but, grammatically, it is the subject after the verb, while man is the sub- 
ject before the verb, in the grammatical sense of the term subject. This 
is the case in all such sentences when an adjective or substantive forms 
the Predicate. 

Sentences. 

109. Sentences are simple or compound. 

110. A simple sentence is formed by a single verb making one asser- 
tion : as, rain falls. 

111. A compound sentence is formed by the union of two or more 
simple sentences, and consequently by two or more verbs: as, when 
rain falls, then the grass will grow. 

112. The parts of a compound sentence are called its members, and the 
divisions of members are called clauses. In the compound sentence just 
given, are two members. If we should add a clause to the first member 
and say, " when the rain falls in its proper season, then the grass will 
grow," there would be two clauses in the first member. 

113. Members of a compound sentence are dependent or serial. 

114. They are dependent members when the assertion of one is made 
to result from the assertion in another. In the example just given, the 
second member is dependent on the first. The growing of the grass is 
spoken of as a result from the falling of the rain. 

115. They are serial members when no necessary dependence of one 
upon the other is expressed : as, " Ccesar came ; he saw ; he conquered; 



LOGICAL ANALYSIS: SENTENCES. 25 

he ruled; he fell." These members are only simple sentences in a' series, 
which may be loosely connected by the conjunction "and" being un- 
derstood. They are called serial, because they form a series. 

116. Here and elsewhere, by a word understood, is meant a word not 
expressed, but which must be supposed in the sentence, for completing 
the grammatical connection and the sense. 

117. General Principles for Simple Sentences. 

(1.) In every sentence there must be a verb, and that verb must have 
its subject, which is a substantive ; as, " the sun is shining." 

(2.) The verb must be transitive or intransitive ; if transitive, it 
must have an object, and that object must be a substantive; as, "the 
sun heats the water." 

(3.) Every preposition must have an object, and this object must be a 
substantive ; as, " the sun shines on the water." 

The two parts of speech thus deduced, are the verb and substantive. 

(4.) Every verb may be modified by an adverb, and this by another 
adverb ; as, " the sun shines very brightly." 

(5.) Every substantive may be qualified by an adjective, that adjec- 
tive modified by an adverb, and that adverb by another adverb; as, 
"the water is very darkly blue." 

(6.) Every substantive, which is the object of a preposition, may be 
referred to another substantive, which is the object of another prepo- 
sition, and thus through a series. The last substantive of that series 
may be qualified by an adjective, that adjective modified by an adverb, 
and this latter by another adverb; as "water, in the reflection of the 
splendor of clouds very deeply red, is reddened beautifully." 

u Reflection " is the object of the preposition "in;" splendor of, "of;" 
clouds of the second "of;" and clouds are qualified by u red;" red 
modified by " deeply ;" and deeply by " very." 

(7.) Every substantive, which is the object of a transitive verb, may 
be referred to another substantive, which is the object of any pre- 
position, this substantive in like manner to another substantive, which is 
the object of another preposition, and thus through a series. The last 
substantive of that series may be qualified by an adjective, that adjec- 
tive modified by an adverb, and that adverb by another adverb, e. g. : 
" the shell struck the roof of a house in a quarter quite remarkably full 
of combustible materials." "Roof" is the object of the transitive verb 
struck. It is connected with "house" by the preposition "of;" and that 
with "quarter" by the preposition "in." Quarter is qualified by full, and 
full modified by remarkably, and remarkably by quite. 

2 



26 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

(8.) The infinitive form of the verb is regarded as a substantive, 
which is a subject or an object. If it be the latter, it is the object of a 
transitive verb, or of a preposition, expressed or understood: as, "he 
desired to study diligently." " What went ye out for to see ?" 

(9.) If the verb become the copula, the predicate is a substantive or 
an adjective, and is subject to the same conditions already stated, for 
every substantive and every adjective; as, "men are very imperfect 
beings." (104, 105, 106.) 

(10.) In Universal Grammar, in the order of analysis, the adverb ap- 
pears at the last place, and the verb at the first. 

(11.) Though the Article does not belong to Universal Grammar, it 
may, for convenience in using English examples, be regarded as an ad- 
jective unmodified by an adverb. Its place is by the substantive, to 
which it is attached. 

These general principles may now be applied. 

General Rule. 

118. In applying the principles to any particular sentence, find, and 
place in successive ranks: 

1st. The essential parts of speech in that sentence. 

2d. The attendants and the substantives, which are objects. 

3d. Attendants on attendants, and subordinate objects, with their at- 
tendants. 

An example will now be given, as well as special rules for giving 
symmetry to a written analysis, so that the anatomy of the sentenca 
may be exhibited to the eye. 

Example for a Simple Sentence. 

" The perfectly wise Creator most mercifully bestowed a faculty for 
speech." 

Special Rules for Simple Sentences. 

1. The first step is to find the verb and its subject, and to place over 
the one the letter P, for predicate, and over the other S, for subject. 
Put a long, straight line between these letters as a base line. The verb 
and the substantive are the two essential parts of speech. In the ex- 
ample, the verbis "bestowed" and its subject is the substantive "Creator" 

The work then appears in this form : 

S. P . 

(1.) Creator, bestowed, 



logical analysis: simple SENTENCES. 27 

2. The second step is to find the attendants and the objects. The 
attendant on Creator is the adjective " wise," and the particle "the." 
The attendant on the verb is the adverb "mercifully." As the verb 
is transitive, it has an object. That object is "faculty." The second 
rank of the analysis can now be formed : 

S. P. 

(1.) Creator bestowed 

(2.) wise the mercifully faculty. 

3. The next step is to find the attendants on the attendants, and the 
subordinate substantives, which are the objects of prepositions. The 
attendant on "wise" is the adverb "perfectly;" on "faculty," the article 
"a," and on "mercifully," the adverb "most." The subordinate object of 
the preposition "for," is speech. 

The third rank of the analysis can now be formed, and, by the same 
principles, a fourth, fifth, and so on, as far as the sentence may require. 
S. P. 



(1.) Creator, 


bestowed, 


y~ 


V / V 


(2.) wise 


the mercifully faculty 


^y 


~y y "Vfbr 


perfectly 


most a speech 



4. Some practical details must be observed, to avoid confusion and a 
lack of symmetry. The line over the first rank must be parallel with 
the base of the paper or board. Sufficient space must be left between 
the subject and predicate. As soon as a word is written, it must be 
underscored by a line parallel to the base line. From each line small 
curves must be drawn to the words in the next rank to indicate con- 
nection. Prepositions, without underscoring, are to be placed between 
the words they connect, or when there is not room, by the side of the 
substantives to which they belong. 

5. When a sentence is so presented, it is not only useful for grammar, 
but for composition, by giving a mould for sentences which can be in 
the mind when one is writing or speaking. 

6. When the verb "to be" is the only one employed, put over the 
line the three letters, S. C. and P., for subject, copula and predicate, 
and place the verb under C. Treat the subject as before, and treat the 
substantive or adjective, now forming the predicate, like any other sub- 
stantive or adjective, by placing under it, its attendants or objects: as 



Law is Direction. 

y v y \ y 



28 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

f. After you have become versed in logical analysis, by long prac- 
tice, divide every verb into copula and predicate by the verb "to be ; ,! 
as, "rain falls "■—" rain is falling." 

Examples of Compound Sentences used for Illustration. 

1. Because speech is a faculty peculiar to man, an emanation from 
human reason, and a gift from the divine reason, therefore, language 
distinguishes men from brutes, and its cultivation elevates human reason 
towards the divine. 

2. The wind goeth toward the South, and turneth about unto the 
North ; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again ac» 
cording to his circuits. 

3. Language bestows power ; but, alas I how many pervert it to the 
most vile purposes. 

Special Rules for Compound Sentences. 

119. 1. In analyzing a passage, containing several simple sentences, 
begin by counting the verbs, expressed or understood. As many as are 
the verbs, so many will be the simple sentences in number. To free the 
mind from all confusion, write the verbs in a temporary list, to be after- 
ward erased; number them, and distinguish, by a dot, the verb "to be." 
Thus, in the first example, are five verbs: 1st, the verb "is," expressed 
before "faculty;" 2d, the same verb, understood, before "emanation;" 
3d, the same verb, understood, before "gift;" 4th, the verb "distin- 
guishes;" 5th, the verb "elevates." In the second example, are the 
four verbs — goes, turns, whirls, returns. The ending, "eth," is simply au 
old form. In the third example, are two verbs, "bestows" and 
"pervert." 

2. Find for each Yerb, its grammatical subject, and place these sub- 
jects in a temporary list, by the side of their respective verbs. In the 
first example, " speech " is the first subject represented, the second un- 
derstood, the third understood; "language" is the fourth, and "culti- 
vation" the fifth. In the other examples, the subjects are "wind," "it," 
"language," "many." 

3. Look for the conjunctions, expressed or understood, which connect 
the sentences, and hold them in recollection. Decide, by the sense, 
whether the sentences are dependent or serial. 

In the first example, the conjunctions are "because " and "therefore." 
"Because" is once expressed, and twice understood. The sentences 
are dependent. In the second example, the conjunction is " and ;" the 
sentences are serial. In the third, the conjunction expressed is " but," 



logical analysis: sentences, PRACTICE. 29 

and that which is understood before " language " depends en the sense we 
give to the sentence. It may be "though " or "although." 

4. Proceed now to draw out your simple sentences, according to the 
rules for them. If the sentences are serial, put them in the order in 
which they stand. If they are dependent, put that or those first on 
which the others depend. The order will be at once seen by inspection 
of any one of the three examples. 

5. Enclose, by braces vertically drawn, the single sentences which 
are affected by one conjunction, and write such conjunction against the 
brace to which it belongs. Enclose these by other braces, if necessary, 
till a single large one embraces the whole compound sentence. 

6. When interjections occur, their arrangement is to be similar to that 
of conjunctions, since, like these, they apply to whole sentences. An 
interjection is the expression of an emotion, applied to some following 
sentence or sentences. The emotion expressed by the interjection can 
itself be expressed in a separate sentence. Therefore, set the interjec- 
tion against the sentence to which it applies, and under the conjunction, 
if there be one. When desired, write by it, on the left 1st, the class of 
emotions expressed ; and, 2dly, the sentence understood by the interjec- 
tion. Thus, in the last example, the interjection is "alasl" the senti- 
ment is "sorrow." The sentence — "I grieve for the fact," "I regret to 
say it," or some other equivalent. 

*l. Observe these rules with care, because the object is to form accurate 
habits. What you are now learning will help you in many things : 1, 
in English Grammar and parsing, because the analyzed sentence gives 
the relations, which are the basis of all the Rules of Syntax; 2, In 
composition, in recitations, conversations, and public speaking, because 
you will thus see the moulds and forms of sentences, and so learn to 
make sentences easily and well ; 3, in all subsequent studies based on 
language, since they all refer to the sentence, by analysis or combination; 
4, In learning other languages and translating, because, by this process 
you can analyze any sentence in any language, parse it, and then give 
it elegantly in your own tongue. 

120. The exercises now follow : The learner must not forget that in 
all studies connected with language, exercises, written or spoken, are indis- 
pensable. When principles are taught, they must be brought into some 
exercise, by the continuance of which a habit will be formed, and the 
principle itself be more clearly comprehended. In these studies, the rule 
holds, that for any thing to be known, something must be done. 

121. The second exercise in language is for the second attainment 

It consists in analyzing sentences according to the rules given, and in 
stating the relations of words in a sentence, as preparatory to Rules of 
Syntax. 



30 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

The exercise is partly written and partly oral. 

For the written exercise, analyze the following sentences : For the 
oral exercise, take a book, and 1, analyze sentence after sentence by the 
rules given, till you can do it perfectly; 2, after analyzing any sentence, 
parse the words analytically, (etymologically,) by stating to what part of 
speech each word belongs. 

Sentences for Exercises. 

" The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 

"The love of money is the root of all evil." 

" Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people." 

"The memorial of virtue is immortal, because it is approved with 
God, and with men." 

" Wisdom is the grey hair unto men, and an unspotted life is old age." 

A civil war resembles the heat of a fever ; but a foreign war (resem- 
bles) the heat of exercise, and serves to keep the body in health. — Bacon, 

If the people are of weak courage, number is of little value in 
armies ; for, as Virgil says : the number of the sheep never troubles 
the wolf. 

God never works miracles to refute atheism, because His ordinary 
works refute it. — Bacon. 

Death opens the gate to good fame, and extinguishes envy. — Bacon. 

Honest dealing is the honor of human nature, and a mixture of 
falsehood resembles alloy in gold and silver. The alloy may fit the 
metal for work, but makes it base. — Bacon. 

Lowly they bowed, adoring, and began 
Their orisons, each morning duly paid. — Milton, 



Sec. 4. — Rules of Syntax. 

122. Tlie third attainment in language consists in ability to apply the 
Rules of Syntax, in Universal Grammar, to sentences. 

The following explanations and rules are to assist in gaining this at- 
tainment. 

123. The word syntax means arrangement together. It is the ar- 
rangement of the parts of speech together in a sentence, according to 
their mutual relations. A more exact view will be given in English 
Grammar. 



KULES OF SYNTAX: RELATIONS. 3] 

124. Rules of Syntax are directions how to combine the 
parts of speoch in a sentence, according to these relations. 

The rules are, therefore, based on the relations, and these must be 
first understood. 

Relations in Syntax. 

125. The relations considered in Syntax by Universal Grammar, are 
hree : They are subjective, objective, and general. 

126. By looking at the tables and definitions for the parts of speech, 
these relations can be understood. 

127. The subjective relation is generally called agreement. 

It applies to the relations between the verb and its subject ; between 
substantive and adjective ; between verb and adverb ; between adjective 
and adverb ; and between one adverb and another. The arrows indicate 
these relations, and may fix them in the memory. Each to which the 
arrow points, is a subject for that from which it points. Hence, this is 
called the subjective relation. The pronoun, is, of course, included, 
because it represents and takes the place of a substantive. 

128. The objective relation is generally called government. 

It applies to the substantive as an object. It is an object to a transi- 
tive verb, or to a preposition. The pronoun, is, of course, included 
under the substantive. 

129. General relations include, connection, substitution, and impartation. 

130. Connection applies to the conjunction; substitution to the inter- 
jection ; impartation to any part of speech doing the work of another. The 
office of one is often imparted to another. A part of the verb, called the 
infinitive, is used as a substantive. Another part of the verb does the 
work of an adjective, and is called a participle. This is not the place to 
explain them. Pronouns sometimes do the work of adjectives, as well 
as of substantives ; adjectives of substantives. Sometimes a whole sen- 
tence i3 put as the subject of a verb, and thus made to do the work of a 
substantive. The pronoun has its name from being used as a noun. 

t The conjunction does the work of a preposition, by uniting words. 

131. This impartation runs through all the parts of speech. If under- 
stood, grammar becomes simple in the learner's mind. If not understood, 
he is always liable to confusion. 

132. Understanding it, he will see, at once, that in parsing, he is to 
consider which one of the functions of the parts of speech is performed 
by the word. 

133. It will be seen, by examination, that all the parts of speech have 
been included under these relations. The article, it will be remembered, 
is regarded as an adjective of limitation. 



32 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

134. Position is not considered in Universal Grammar, because the 
rules for position vary in different languages. 

Rules of Syntax in Universal Grammar. 

135. From these relations are formed certain rules called the Rules of 
Syntax. 

136. These Rules of Syntax, generally, are only the definitions put in 
another form. e. g. — Definition: An adjective is an attendant word 
which qualifies a substantive. Rule : Adjectives qualify the substantives 
on which they attend. 

13*7. These rules, given in Universal Grammar, have not the details 
which Rules of Syntax will have in English Grammar. The learner is 
not supposed to know what is meant by case, person, number, gender ; 
even if he have already studied grammar, he omits these details, for the 
present, in parsing. 

138. I. Subjective Relation. — Agreement. 

Rule 1. Every verb has a subject. 

2. The substantive which receives the assertion of a verb is its subject 

3. Adjectives qualify substantives, and articles limit the signification of 
a class. 

4. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

5. If the predicate be a substantive, it has the same grammatical rela- 
tion to the verb with the subject: as, "man is an animal." 

6. If the predicate be an adjective, it qualifies the substantive, grammati- 
cally, in the same manner as if it were attaclied to it in the same member of 
the sentence : as, " man is mortal." 

139. II. Objective Relation. — Government 

?. Active transitive verbs require a substantive, which is called their 
object. 

8. Prepositions require a substantive, which is called their object, which 
object they connect with the verb, or some with other word in the sentence. 

9. Two substantives, of which, one denotes possession by the other, may 
have the preposition u of " placed between them, according to sense, and then 
be treated by the rules for substantives and prepositions, e. g.: " John's 
look is lost. 11 " The book of John is lost" 



KULES OF SYNTAX: PRACTICE. 33 

III. General Relation. 

1 40. 1. Connection. 

10. Conjunctions connect sentences, and may be considered as connecting* 
words. 

141. 2. Substitution. 

11. Pronouns are used instead of nouns. 

12. Interjections are used instead of sentences. 

142. 3. Importation. 

13. Every word is considered to belong to that part of speech whose office 
it performs. 

14. A noun, pronoun, part of a sentence, or any word used substantively, 
may be the subject of a verb. This includes the infinitive, when a subject. 

15. Any word, which is the object of a preposition, or of an active tran- 
sitive verb, is a substantive, or used substantively. This includes the infinU 
tive, when it is not a subject : as, " I tuant to sleep. 11 

1 6. Two or more substantives, meaning the same person, or thing, in the 
same member of the sentence, may be subjects of the same verb, or objects 
of the same transitive verb, or preposition. They are then said to be in ap- 
position, and are liable to the same grammatical construction : as, " I, Paul, 
lixxve written it. 11 u God, be merciful to rue, a sinner." 

The third exercise iu language is for the third attainment. 

It consists in applying the rules of syntax to sentences. 

The exercise is partly written, and partly oral. 

(1.) For a written exercise. 1. Draw the sentence given into the 
form required by analysis. 2. Write the analytic and synthetic parsing 
of each word. e. g. : 

a G. P. 

Men are mortal. 

Analysis. — The copula is "are." The predicate, logical and grammati- 
cal, is " mortal." The subject, logical and grammatical, is " men." 

Parsing. — " Men " is a substantive, a noun, common. It is a substan- 
tive, because subject to the assertion of a verb (33) ; a noun, because a 
name (52) ; a common noun, because the name of a class (55). It belongs 
to the subjective relation in syntax (127), and receives the second 
rule : " The substantive which receives the assertion of the verb, is its 
subject." (136, 2). 

u Are " is a verb, because it unites and asserts (29) ; it is a copulative 
verb, because one form of the verb "to be, 11 as is known by the sense (50). 

2* 



34 UNITERSAL GRAMMAR.' 

It belongs to the subjective relation, and receives the first rule of syntax : 
" every verb has a subject." (138, 1). Its subject is "men." 

"Mortal" is an adjective, because it qualifies. It is also a predicate. 
The relation is subjective (127). The sixth rule of syntax applies: 
"if the predicate be an adjective," etc. 

(2.) For an oral exercise, take sentences in a book; and 1, Analyze 
ach ; 2. State the parts of speech ; 3, Apply the rules of syntax. 

Sentences for Exercise. 

" The word of God, most high, is the fountain of wisdom, and her 

ways are everlasting commandments." ■ . . 

" To fear the Lord is fullness of wisdom, and filleth men with her fruits. ,, 
" Riches have wings ; and sometimes they fly away of themselves, and 

Sometimes they must be made to fly, so that they will bring back more." 

The two divisions of Universal Grammar have now been examined. 
Next in order is the subject-matter. 

THE LANGUAGES. 

143. The fourth attainment in language would, naturally, be the form* 
ation of sounds, and the derivation of words in Universal Grammar. 

But as these subjects will come in English Grammar, they are left to 
its second part. * 

The fourth attainment, therefore, is, an understanding of the families of 
languages, and ability to show, by them, the sources and relations of 
the English Language. 

The following explanations are to promote this attainment. 

144. Universal Grammar finds its subject-matter in the languages of 
the world. 

145. These are divisible into three leading families: the Shemitic, the 
Turanian, and the Arian. 

146. (1.) The Shemitic family. — The name is derived from their being 
spoken by the descendents of Shem. Examples of this family are seen 
in the Hebrew and the Arabic. The seat of the Shemitic languages 
was, and partly is, in Arabia, with some adjoining countries, and a part 
of Africa. 

14T. (2.) The Turanian family. — It covers Central and Northern Asia, 
including Mongols and Tartars. An example of this family is seen in 
the Turkish. 

148. (3.) The Arian family. — The languages of Europe, and those of 



material: languages. 35 

Armenia, Persia, and India, all belong to one family. This is sometimes 
called Indo-European, because the languages it includes are spoken in 
India and Europe. It is sometimes called the Japhetic family, because 
used by the descendants of Japheth. Full investigation has led to the 
adoption of the term Arian, because it is found that the original source 
of this group of languages was in India, and that Arya was the most 
ancient name of the people in India who used that language, from which 
the subdivisions of this family have been derived. 

One or the other of these titles may be used indifferently. 

It will be convenient and interesting to present the subdivisions of 
this family in an order nearly historical. 

149. (1.) The Sanscrit This is the oldest branch of the Arian family 
now existing. The Sanscrit is the language used in India in the sacred 
writings of the Brahmins. 

150. (2.) The Persian. The language spoken at this day in Persia can 
be traced back to its fountain in the Iranian language, which has the 
closest similarity to the Sanscrit. 

151. (3.) The Armenian. This is used in Armenia, but, as a dead 
language, as we use the Greek and Latin. 

152. Passing by the branches in Afghanistan, in Bokhara, in Kurdis- 
tan, and both in and around the Caucasian mountains, we next arrive at 
those branches which have entered Europe. 

153. The Arian family has sent out four great branches into Europe: 
the Greco-Roman, the Celtic, the Teutonic, and the Slavonic. 

154. (4.) The Greco-Roman, or Classic branch. From the Pelasgi, 
who entered Greece in the earliest times, came the old Greek language. 
The only issue from it now existing is the modern Greek. From the 
same ancient people entering Italy, and modifying their language as 
they moved westward, came the ancient languages of Italy, out of which 
grew the Latin — the language of Rome. The derivatives from the Latin 
are the Italian, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French, and the "Wal- 
lachian. These, with the Provencal, are sometimes called the Romance 
dialects. 

155. (5.) The Celtic. The Celts next arrived in Europe. They cov- 
ered, at one time, its whole extent, and sent migrations over a large part 
of- the earth. Crowded and driven westward by the next race, the 
Teutonic, they occupy but a small space. At present, the only remain- 
ing Celtic dialects are the Cymric, and the Gaelic. The Cymric includes 
the Welsh now spoken in Wales, and the Armorican used in Brittany. 
The Gaelic comprises the Irish, the Gaelic of the west coast of Scotland, 
and the dialect of the Isle of Man. 



36 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

156. (G.) The Teutonic, or Gothic branch. A race next succeeded, 
called by some, Goths, and by others Teutons, from whom the Germans 
are descended. This branch of language is generally called the Teutonic. 
It has three subdivisions : the Low-German, the High-German, and the 
Scandinavian. 1. The Low- German dialects are spoken in the low 
countries, along the Atlantic, and hence the name. It includes the 
Saxon, which was transported into the British Islands in the fifth cen- 
tury, and became Anglo-Saxon, the basis of the existing English lan- 
guage. It includes, also, the modern Low-Dutch, or the language of 
Holland, with some others, which, as the Flemish, are fast expiring. 
2. The High-German is the language generally spoken throughout Ger- 
many. 3. The Scandinavian branch included, in ancient times, the old 
Norse dialect. This was the language of Norway. It was transported, 
by colonization, to Iceland. In that island, the old tongue was culti- 
vated by literary people, and has been kept to* the present day, with 
fewer changes than on the Continent. It has many resemblances to 
our own language. On the Continent, the old Norse formed three dif- 
ferent dialects : the Norwegian, the Swedish, and the Danish. 

15*7. (1.) The Slavonic branch. The Slavic races followed, and are 
now seen in Russia and in Poland. It is unnecessary to mention other 
divisions than the Russian and the Polish. 

Such are the different branches of the great Arian, or Indo-European 
family of languages. 

158. No point is more fully established than the affinity existing 
among all these branches, and their derivation from a common source. 

This is seen in the words employed. Many words still live in India, 
Persia, Germany, and England, that were used in the same sense in the 
most remote ages. The terms for God, for house, for father, mother, son,* 
daughter, dog, cow, tree, are nearly identical in all the Indo-European 
idioms. This is seen in the Particles used for Pronouns, for numeral 
Adjectives, for Prepositions, for Conjunctions, for Adverbs, for the ter- 
minations of Derived Words. It is shown in the Conjugations of Yerbs, 
as, e.g., in the verb "to be." Including our own, all the languages of 
Europe, except the Turkish, (which is an invader from Tartary,) may be 
considered as dialects of one old mother-tongue. Whenever this fact is 
applied in education, the acquisition of languages will be greatly facili- 
tated. 

159. This view of the languages has prepared for an understanding 
of the sources of our own. The English language is derived, principally, 

* Max Muller. Survey of Languages, 



material: languages 37 

from two of these branches. These are: 1, the Teutonic through the 
Saxon ; 2, the Greco-Roman. From the Saxon, we have the language 
of life ; from the Greek and Latin, that of books. The details and causes 
will be learned from history, and in rhetoric. Other branches and fami- 
lies among the languages furnish some few words which have been 
adopted in English. But our language is mainly made by a combination 
of the two noblest families — the Classic and the Teutonic. Its power 
and beauty come from the union of the Greek and Latin with the Saxon, 
in one rich and wondrous language. From the Greek and Latin it de- 
rives flexibility and power to make new derivations as they are wanted. 
From the Saxon it derives strength and vividness. " It is the language 
which grows and conquers ; the language of the future ; the language 
of the world.' 1 * 

160. One important law in the English language results from its con- 
nection with the Saxon. It is that the principles of its structure are 
drawn from the Saxon, and from the Gothic family, of which the Saxon is 
a part. Thus, the verb destroy is borrowed from the Latin, but its in- 
flections, as destroy-e<2, destroy-^, thou destroy-estf, he destroy-ecZ, are 
from the Gothic, through the Saxon. Many words in a sentence may 
be from Greek and Latin ; but the order of words in a sentence is de- 
termined by the rules of the Saxon. It is so in spelling and in accent. 
The laws of accent strike from the Saxon into words from the Classic 
languages. The Saxon is, therefore, as the native stock ; the others are 
like a graft. The importance of this principle will be seen as the learner 
advances. It is especially valuable in showing rule, where most persons 
see nothing but irregularity, in the spelling and pronunciation of English 
words. 

This is the language which we are now to study, and accordingly we 
pass, at this point, from Universal to English Grammar. 

Exercise. 

Tlie fourth exercise is for the fourth attainment (143.) 

1. Draw out the following tabular view of the languages, and explain 
it, specially stating from which two principal families the English is de- 
rived. 

2. Analyze and parse the following sentence : 

"Things will have their first or second agitation. If they be not 
tossed upon the arguments of counsel, they will be tossed upon the 
waves of fortune." 

* Mailer 



38 



UNIVERSAL GHAMMAB, 



r l. Asiatic. 



a 

I 



" 1. Arian 
or Indo*« 
European 



2. Euro* 
pean.. 



RECAPITULATION". 

1. Sanscrit. 

2. Persian. 

3. Armenian. 

4. Caucasian. 

5. Miscellaneous. 



1. Greco-Roman 
or Classic... 



' 1. Greek Greek. 

f Modern .... 
(Greek 



b 2. Latin Latin, 

Italian 



Spanish 

Portuguese. 
French 

Wallachian. J 



2. Celtic*) 

(Gaelic, 



ic j Welsh. 
3> { Irish. 



4 



3. Gothic, or 
Teutonic..^ . 



1. Low- f 1 
German. j Saxon 

2. High-German 

3. Scan- (Norwegian, 
dinavian "1 Swedish.... 

(Danish 



2. Turanian. 



f Russian. 
4. Slavonic...... -< 

I Polish. 



C Mongolian. 

( Tartaric | Turkish. 



I, 3. Shemitic. 



( Hebrew. 
I Arabic. 



PART II. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER III. 

159. English Grammar is one of the sciences of language 

which applies the principles of Universal Grammar to the 

English. It unites those principles with established usage, so 

as to teach correct expression in this language, for the ear and 

eye. 

Divisions. 

160. It has two divisions : Construction and Representation. 

161. Construction, to form sentences, correctly, is Syntax; to form 
words, Etymology. 

162. Representation of words, correctly, is Orthonomy; of sentences, 
Prosody. 

Four divisions thus arise : Syntax, Etymology, Orthonomy, Prosody. 
Syntax is construction to form sentences correctly; 
Etymology " " " " words " 

Orthonomy " representation " " " " 

Prosody " " " *' sentences " 

Method. 

163. In grammar, the method adopted is of great importance. If it be 
vicious, the pupil finds confusion and perplexity. If it be correct, he 
proceeds from the known to the unknown. 

We can proceed from the known to the unknown only by commenc- 
ing with the sentence. 
This is the method of the present course. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Sentence will be first treated of by Syntax, both analytically 
and synthetically. Analyzing the sentence, we will have the part3 of 
speech, according to their relations in the sentence. Combining the 
parts of speech after these relations, we shall have the Rules of Syntax. 
This belongs to the first division of grammar, called Syntax. 

164. The Word, apart from the sentence, will be then taken by Ety- 
mology. It will begin with the elements of language, and combine 
sounds for letters; letters for syllables; syllables for primitive words; 
primitives for derivatives. Having thus drawn out the words of the 
English language, it will classify them both for use in writing and speak- 
ing, and also for receiving the laws of representation. This belongs to 
the second division of grammar, called Etymology. 

These two parts give the combinations needed to create the Sentence 
and the Word. 

Sentence and word being thus made, there is to be correct represent- 
ation of each, in writing and speaking. 

1G5. Representation, accordingly, will take sentences and words, thus 
organized by combination, and give the principles for correctness in 
spelling and pronunciation, as applied to Words ; and in punctuation 
elocution, and modes of expression in poetry and prose, as applied to 
Sentences. 

This work belongs to the third and fourth divisions of grammar, 
called Orthonomy and Prosody. 

Such is the order proposed in this course.* 

*If the author has done anything to improve the mode of teaching Grammar, he 
thinks it will be found especially here : 1. In the Phraseology ; 2. In the Method. 

1. Phraseology. — He has restored the word Etymology to its old and proper mean- 
ing. He has included under it that which properly belongs to it. 

Etymology is from two words, (fru/xo?,) true, and (\oyos,) word. It treats, there- 
fore, of the word, (not of the sentenco,) and in the word seeks its true origin — its ety- 
mon — so as to reveal its true sense. Hence, Etymology is thus defined by Webster, in 
his Dictionary : 

" That part of philology which explains the origin and derivation of words, with a 
view to ascertain their radical or primary signification. 

" In grammar, Etymology comprehends the various inflections and modifications of 
words, and shows how they are formed from their simple roots. 

" The deduction of words from their originals ; the analysis of compound words 
into their primitives." 

But most grammarians have placed the parts of speech under Etymology. They 
have given, as a reason, that Etymology deals with words, and the parts of speech 
are words. 

But the parts of speech are not words apart from the sentence, but names for offices 
performed by words in a sentence, which can only be known by analyzing the sen- 
tence, and finding the relations of its parts. 

There has thus been a deviation from the true sense of the word Etymology, a de- 
viation to be rectified by restoring the word to its true meaning. 



note: phraseology: method. 41 

He has also Included und^r the term Syntax, all which belongs to the sentence, and 
relations in it. Consequently, he has included the parts of speech. 

No one doubts that the Rules of Syntax should come under Syntax. If so, the Parts 
of Speech must come under the same head. As is shown in the work, the one is a 
counterpart of the other. Is it a rule of Syntax, that adjectives qualify substantives? 
The definition of that part of speech corresponds. An Adjective is a word which 
qualifies a Substantive. Is it a Rule of Syntax that Adverbs modify? It is the defi- 
nition of Adverbs, that they modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs. This 
parallelism extends through the Rules of Syntax, and through the Parts of Speech. 

Since, then, Rules of Syntax and Parts of Speech are based on the same relations, 
they belong to one division of Grammar. That division must be found in the combi- 
nations for the sentence. The name for it must be that which signifies arrangement 
together. The true name, then, is Syntax. 

The author has, therefore, put Parts of Speech and Rules of Syntax under one gene- 
ral head, and formed two divisions — the Analytic and Synthetic. 

2. Method. — The common method is faulty, because it does not proceed from the 
known to the unknown. 

It begins with letters to form syllables ; and from syllables forms, not words, but 
Parts of Speech ; then, from words, it forms sentences. It presents its parts : Orthog- 
raphy for Letters ; Etymology for Words ; Syntax for Sentences. 

If this method were applied in mathematics, we might say : fractions are parts of 
unity, and the unit a part of all whole numbers, therefore we begin with fractions, 
and learn the unit last. 

Now, in grammar, the sentence is the unit, and it is perfectly reversing the order of 
nature to reserve it to the last. 

Accordingly, when the learner takes such a method, what is the result? He reaches 
Capital Letters. He is told that they are to be used with Proper Nouns. He has 
not yet learned what are Proper Nouns. He proceeds on to Case. Ho is told that 
Case expresses the relations of words ii» a sentence, He has not yet learned anything 
about a Sentence. He is then told ol the Nominative and Objective Cases, and that 
the Nominative is the case in which the Substantive is the subject of the assertion of 
a Verb. He has not learned what a Verb is, what it does, nor how a word is its Sub- 
ject. He is told that the Objective Case exists when a Substantive is governed by a 
Verb or Preposition. . He knows, as yet, nothing of Government, nor of Prepositions. 

Such difficulties beset the learner at every step. If he can go on without discourage- 
ment, conquer Syntax, and then review ; then, and then only, can he understand 
grammar. After Syntax has told him about the Sentence, he can understand the first 
part. 

By the present method, such difficulties are avoided. 

In Phraseology and Method, the author has not, by these improvements, made in- 
novations. On tho contrary, he has restored the old and simple nomenclature and 
order. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



DIVISION I. 

SYNTAX. 

166. The subject of Syntax is the sentence, simple or com- 
pound. Simple: as, "A is B ;" compound: as, "if A is B, 
then C is B." The whole sphere of Syntax is within One Sim- 
ple Sentence, or between Two Simple Sentences. 

167. Syntax considers, in that subject, the grammatical relations of 
its parts, which parts are the words combined to form the sentence. 
Such is the relation of the adjective to the substantive, or of the 
substantive to the verb. 

168. Syntax is analytic or synthetic. Analytic Syntax 
analyzes the sentence according to those relations, and thus 
distinguishes and defines the parts of speech, by the functions 
which the words perform. 

e.g. : By the relation between a verb and its subject, it distinguishes 
and defines a substantive, as standing under the assertion of a verb. 

Synthetic Syntax reunites the parts of speech in the sen- 
tence, according to those relations, and thus forms what are 
usually denominated "Kules of Syntax;" e.g.: the subject 
and verb are connected by the subjective relation. 

The rule of Syntax applied to the substantive in that relation, is, that 
it is nominative to the verb. The rule for the verb in that relation, is, 
that it agrees with the substantive. It agrees in certain particulars, to 
be given hereafter. 

169. Both analytic and synthetic Syntax are general ol 
special. 

The latter furnishes details and specifications for the parts of speech, 
and for the rules of syntax. 

The former gives the parts of speech, and the rules of syntax, without 
these particulars. 



syntax: divisions. 43 

In the general view of them, they should be kept together to assist 
the learner. One is the counterpart of the other. Each throws light 
upon the other. A neglect of this plan has caused perplexity. 

Accordingly, this is the plan now proposed: 1. The parts of speech 
will be given generally, but with references when possible, to the cor- 
respondent rules of syntax. 2. The rules of syntax will be given gener- 
ally, but with references to the correspondent mode for identifying parts 
of speech. 

170. Words employed as parts of speech, and sentences, 
under rules of syntax, may be used normally or abnormally. 
They are used normally when no change is required for ap- 
plying the definition or rule. They are used abnormally when 
a change is required, before the definition or rule can be 
applied. 
Examples will presently appear. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMA B. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Analytic Syntax, generally. 

Principles. 

171. The use of a word in a sentence is wholly distinct from its mean- 
ing apart from the sentence. Thus, the word seeing may be used in a 
sentence, as a substantive ; e. g. : " Seeing is believing." It may be used 
as an adjective; e.g.: "the seeing eye." It maybe used as a verb; 
e.g.: "he was seeing me." Such are the different uses of the same 
word in sentences. But, apart from the sentence, seeing means action ; 
the action of the organs of sight. 

172. The meaning of words, apart from the sentence, form classes, 
which are reduced under general heads, and named Categories. These 
are considered under Etymology. Quantity, quality, action, passion, 
substance, are among the Categories. Thus, green is in the class quality. 

173. The grammatical use of a word within a sentence, or between two 
sentences, is called its office. Thus, it is the office of a verb to assert. 

These offices are limited and specified, being, as was shown in Uni- 
versal Grammar, to assert; to be subject to assertion; to qualify; to 
modify; to give substitution or connection for words or sentences. 

174. Names are given to words as parts of speech, according as they 
perform one or other of these offices or uses. 

175. The syntactical definition of any part of speech is drawn solely 
from its use in the sentence. 

17G. A definition of any of the parts of speech drawn from the mean- 
ing of words apart from the sentence, is incorrect as a definition, though 
useful for illustration, e. g. : If we define an adjective as a word ex- 
pressing quality, it is erroneous. Blackness expresses quality, but it is a 
substantive. If we define a verb to be a word which signifies being, 
action, or j^ssion, it is incorrect. The words existence, action, passion 
have precisely these significations, and yet they are substantives. Such 
definitions are not syntactical, but categorical or etymological. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: GENERALLY: NORMALLY. 45 

177. The Meanings of classes of words, apart from the Sentence, 
may, however, be used as illustrations, to assist the pupil at the beginning, 
in distinguishing the parts of speech. They will be given as attendants 
on the definitions. 

178. A word usually employed in the office of one part of speech, 
may be used in that of another. It is then said to be " used as the 
other," or used abnormally. Thus, the word seeing is used as a substan- 
tive, in the sentence, " seeing is believing." 

179. A word not so used is said to be kept to its proper office, or to 
be used normally ; as, " I am seeing him." 

Obs. — Normal means, by rule ; abnormal, deviating from rule. 



Sec. 1. — Parts of Speech ; Generally- — Normally. 

180. The parts of speech in English are nine : the Yerb and Substan- 
tive ; the Adjective, Article, and Adverb ; the Pronoun and Preposition; 
the Interjection and Conjunction. 

These have been explained under Universal Grammar, and were there 
drawn from the relations in a sentence. 

181. Under each part of speech will be given : 1. Its Meaning apart 
from the Sentence ; 2. Its proper Office in the Sentence ; 3. Its strictly 
syntactical Definition from its office ; 4. Tests for other Parts of Speech, 
if they result from the definition ; 5. The Correspondent Rule of Syntax, 
where that rule comes out directly from the definition. 

182. The definitions are somewhat more extended and precise than 
they were in Universal Grammar; but, fundamentally, they are the 
same. The same principles which were given in Universal Grammar, 
are here repeated, unfolded, and applied to English speech. 

I.— V1SRBS. 

183. 1. Meaning apart from the Sentence. — Words usually em- 
ployed as Verbs, signify, apart from the sentence, existence or action, 
given or received. Action received is called passion. e.q. ; "I am" 
" I strike^ " I am struck" This is the categorical definition of verbs. 

2. Office in a Sentence — The office of the Verb in a sentence is 
to unite it, and to assert existence or action, always with a subject, and 
with or without an object e. g. ; "He is a man," "He breathes" " He 
drinlcs water." 



46 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

3. Definition, (Syntactical.)— The Verb is the word in a 
sentence which unites the whole sentence, and asserts exist- 
ence or action always of a subject, and with or without an 
object. 

4. Tests for other Parts op Speech. — The subject of a Verb is a 
substantive, 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax.— Every Verb has a subject. 

II.— SUBSTANTIVES. 

184. 1. Meaning apart from the Sentence. — Nouns, apart from 
the sentence, are the names of individual substances, as embraced in 
classes ; and of classes, as including individuals. The classes may be 
persons, things, words, or any object of thought ; as, John, man, tree, 
noun, idea. The names of classes are called common nouns : as, man ; 
of individuals, proper nouns : as, Paul. 

2. Office in a Sentence. — The office of Substantives in a sentence, 
is to be subjects to the Yerb, or its objects, directly, or through a pre- 
position. 

3. Definition. — Substantives are the parts of speech in a 
sentence which can be subject to the verb, or its objects, di- 
rectly, or through a preposition. 

4. Tests. — Any word thus made a subject or object, is a Substantive, 
or used as a Substantive. 4. (a) A word having a Substantive for its 
object, is, or is used as a verb or preposition. 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — Substantives are subjects of 
verbs, or the objects of verbs or prepositions. 

HI—ADJECTIVES. 

185. 1. Meaning apart from the Sentence. — Words usually em- 
ployed as Adjectives, signify, apart from the sentence, mostly the quali- 
ties of substances : as, " up the high hill, he heaves a huge round stone." 

2. Office in a Sentence. — The office of Adjectives in a sentence, is 
to qualify substantives. 

3. Definition. — An Adjective is a part of speech which 
qualifies a substantive. 

4. Test for other Parts of Speech. — Any word qualified by an 
Adjective, kept to its office, is a substantive, or used as a substantive. 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — Adjectives qualify substan- 
tives. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: GENERALLY: NORMALLY. 47 

IV.— ADVERBS. 

186. 1. Meaning apart prom the Sentence — Words usually em- 
ployed as Adverbs, signify, apart from the sentence, modifications of 
qualities, or of actions, by manner, quantity, place, or time ; as, They 
are here (place) now, (time) and are working very diligently, (manner.) 

2. Office in a Sentence. — The office of Adverbs in a sentence is to 
modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. 

3. Definition. — An Adverb is a part of speech which 
modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs : 

as, "the river runs rapidly." 

4. Test. — A word modified by an Adverb must be an adverb, adjec- 
tive, or verb. 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — Adverbs modify verbs, ad- 
jectives, and other adverbs. 

V.— PREPOSITIONS. 

18?. 1. Meaning apart from the Sentence. — "Words usually em- 
ployed as Prepositions, signify, apart from the sentence, position and 
action, as rest or motion, in space or time, with relations: as, ''He was 
on the roof, above the fire, and came plunging through the smoke, and 
down the stairs." 

2. Office in a Sentence.— The office of Prepositions in a sentence 
is to connect substantives, as objects, indirectly to the verb, by relation, 
or with the verb, to some other word in the sentence. 

3. Definition. — Prepositions are parts of speech which 
connect substantives, as objects to the verb, by relation, or 
with the verb to some other word in a sentence. 

4. Test. — Every word, which is the object of a Preposition, kept to 
its office, is a substantive, or is used as a substantive. This will be ap- 
plied to the infinitive mood. 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — A Preposition governs sub- 
stantives, which are its objects, and connects them, by relations, to the 
verb, or to some other word in the sentence. 

VI.— PRONOUNS. 

188. 1. Meaning apart from ihe Sentence. — The meaning of 
Pronouns must be referred to the words for which they are substituted, 
and which they represent. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Office in a Sentence. — The office of Pronouns in a sentence, if 
to be a substitute for nouns, and foi words and phrases used as substan- 
tives. 

3. Definition. — A Pronoun is a substantive, used as a 
substitute for another substantive which it represents, in the 
same, or in a second simple sentence : 

As, " when the man spoke, I heard him." 

4. Test. — A word represented by a Pronoun is a substantive, or used 
as a substantive, and the same is true of a collection of words. 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — Pronouns agree with the 
substantives they represent. 

TIL— ARTICLE. 

189. 1. Meaning apart from the Sentence. — Articles, apart from 
the sentence, are without significance ; as a, an, the. 

2. Office in a Sentence. — The office of Articles in a sentence is to 
limit the significations, definitely or indefinitely, in any substantives, or 
words used as substantives, to a portion of their classes; as, "a man," 
"an oak tree," "the man," "the men." As the limitation is definite or 
indefinite, one article is indefinite, a, or an ; one article, the, is definite. 

3. Definition. — Articles are special adjectives, used to 
limit, definitely or indefinitely, significations in substantives, 
to a portion of their classes. 

4. Test. — A word limited by an Article, kept to its office, is a sub- 
stantive, or used as a substantive. 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — Articles limit the sense of 
the substantives to which they belong. 

VIII.— INTERJECTIONS. 

190. 1. Meaning apart from the Sentence. — Interjections, apart 
from the sentence, are words expressing emotion or will; as, "Alas J 
that great city 1" 

2. Office in 'a Sentence. — The office of Interjections in the sen- 
tence, is to utter emotion, by condensing a sentence into a word. 

3. Definition. — An Interjection is a part of speech ex- 
pressing emotion or will, by substituting a word for a sen- 
tence. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: PRACTICE. 49 

4. Test. — The word may represent a sentence. A sentence may be 
signified by a word. 

». Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — Interjections have no gram- 
matical construction with the other words in a sentence. 

IX.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

191. 1. Meaning apart from the Sentence. — Words usually em- 
ployed as Conjunctions have nearly lost significance, apart from the sen- 
tonre. by the lapse of time. In such of them as because, then, since, 
string, either, yet, except, save, notwithstanding, we can see that they 
express relations of thought. 

2. Office in a Sentence. — The office of Conjunctions is mainly be- 
tween sentences, to connect them, and show their relations. As some 
or the same relations exist among the parts of sentences, Conjunctions 
are used within a simple sentence; as, "the king and queen were a 
noole pair." But this is an extension of their primary office, which is 
to cor iect sentences. 

3. Definition. — Conjunctions are parts of speech used for 
30-inectmg sentences, and showing their mutual relations, and 
which may connect parts of a single sentence. 

4. Test. — A word used only for connecting sentences, and showing 
their relation, is a Conjunction, or used as a conjunction. This is the 
case with adverbs and articles; as, "when I came, then you withdrew." 
"The better we are, the happier we are." 

5. Correspondent Rule of Syntax. — Conjunctions connect sen- 
tences by showing their relations, and may connect words in one sen- 
tence. 



192. The fifth attainment in language is to be able to point out and define 
the parts of speech in one's own language, with particulars, not included 
under the same process in Universal Grammar. 

The definitions and explanations just given are subservient to this 
object, as are the exercises that follow. In both, preparation is also 
made for the Rules of English Syntax. 

Directions. — In the following exercises, after naming each word, 1, 
aiate and define each part of speech ; 2, state the office of that part of 
bj^ech, 3, of the words usually acting as that part of speech, state their 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

meaning, apart fuorn their uses, in a sentence; 4, give the Tesi tf-awn 
from the definition for other parts of speech, if one exist; 5, g^e the 
Correspondent Rule of Syntax, if there be one. 

Still more briefly; the work is, to give for each word, 1, the Syntacti- 
cal Definition ; 2, the Office ; 3, the Categorical Definition ; 4, Tests ; 
5, Correspondent Rule of Syntax. 

Example: "Brilliantly shone the sun." 

Brilliantly, is an Adverb ; shone, is a Yerb ; the, is an ArticiP: sun, 
is a Noun. 

Brilliantly, is an Adverb, because it modifies the verb shone. 1. The 
definition of an adverb is, a part of speech which modifies verbs, adjec- 
tives, or other adverbs (184, 3). This modifies a verb. Therefore, it is 
an adverb. 2. The office of adverbs is the basis of definition, and is the 
same as just given, viz.: to modify verbs, adjectives and other aaverbs 
(184, 2). 3. "Words usually employed as ab verbs, signifiy, apart from 
the sentence, modifications of qualities or .^cjioa, (184, 3). In the sen- 
tence is a modification of action, by manner. 4. Fixing an adverb in a 
sentence is a test for the word which it is known, by the sense, to Jaod- 
ify, since that word must be a verb, adjective, or other adverb (194, 4). 
In this case it is a verb. 5. The correspondent Rule of Syntax, com- 
ing directly and unchanged from the definition, is, ''Adverbs modify verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs" (184, 5). Brilliantly, is part of the predi- 
cate of the sentence. (96.) 

Shone, is a verb, because it unites and asserts. It is equivalent to, is 
shining, thus giving the copula and the predicate (115, 6). 1. The defi- 
nition of a verb is, "the word in a sentence which unites the whole 
sentence, and asserts existence or action, always with a subject, and 
with or without an object " (181, 3). This word unites, and it asserts 
action of a subject ; therefore, it is a verb. It has no object; therefore, 
it is intransitive (49). 2. The office of a verb is the same as given in 
the definition. 3. "Words usually employed as verbs, signify, apart, 
from the sentence, existence or action " (181, 1). This signifies action ; 
it is, therefore, an active intransitive verb (45). 4. The verb tests 
other words. Fixing the verb in a sentence, necessarily fixes its sub- 
ject as a substantive. Sun, is, therefore, a substantive (181, 4). 5, The 
corresponding rule of syntax coming indirectly, is, that every verb has 
a subject, with which it agrees. (181, 5.) 

Apply this process to 'sentences : 1, by writing; 2, orally -** ****& 
as it is familiar, include the analysis of these sentences. 



FARTS OF SPEECH: GENERALLY, AB N RM ALL Y. 51 

Sentences. 

/ - - - i L ) 

" W isaom is the breath of the power of God, and a pure influence 
.flowing* from the glory of the Almighty. " 

•* »3ne is the brightness of the everlasting light, the unspotted mirror 
or tne power of God, and the image of His goodness." 

Great riches have sold more men than they ever bought. — Bacon. 



Sec. 2. — Parts of Speech; Generally — Abnormally. 

193. It has been shown that the offices to be performed in any sen- 
tence, or between two sentences, by words, are limited and specific, and 
. tnat the names of the Parts of Speech are drawn from these functions. 

194. A word usually employed for one part of speech may 
perform the office of another, of a third, a fourth, and thus 
wlirDugh the series. In doing so, it may Asop ~Br abandon its 
uwn office, wholly o^p*^rtrx: 

e.g.: "The righlevus is delivered" "Thou dost weigh the path of 
the just." The words "righteous' 7 and "just," usually employed as 
adjectives, are here used as substantives. 

195. This abnormal use of words is needed in all languages, for con- 
venience, conciseness, and force. In English it gives rise to the hearty 
and idiomatic expressions used in common life, and in proverbs; as, 
u the more, the merrier." It is a principle of language, not an excep- 
tion ; a customary mode of speech, and not a figure. 

196." The following examples illustrate the law : 

1. An Adjective may be used as a substantive ; as, "the good die first." 
"He will not at all acquit the wicked." The adjective here abandons its 
office, and performs that of the substantive, by becoming subject and 
object. 

An Adjective may be used as a conjunction, e. g. : "ye both do, and 
will do, the things that we command you." 

2. A Yerb may be used as an adjective. It is then called a participle, 
as, " I saw the colonel leading a charge." " Leading " is here a participle. 
As a verb, it has tjie substantive "charge " for its object. As an adjec- 
tive, it qualifies "colonel." As an adjective, this, like other adjectives, 
(130,) may be used as a substantive; as, " leading such troops was 
pleasant." Here, as a substantive, it is the subject of the verb "was;'* 
as a verb, it has "troops," a substantive, for its object. In these cases, 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a part of the verb, called participle, retains its own office, and joins 
with that, the office of other parts of speech. It particioatp* "with the 
others, and so is called participle. 

A Yerb may be used as a substantive. It is then said to \*p uinmtive, 
or in the infinitive mood. The substantive character is expressed in 
English by the preposition "to" being placed before the verb* as, "to 
sleep is what I want." Here it is a subject before "is:" "Iwant to 
sleep." Here it is an object after the transitive verb. " Ye went for to 
see." Here it is an object to the preposition "for," there being an in- 
transitive verb. " I went to walk." Here it is an object to a preposition 
understood, the verb being intransitive. In these cases, its o^ce as a 
verb has not been performed. The sentences are equivalent to il Skep is 
what I want." "I want sleep." "Ye went for seeing." "I went for 
walking." It is used only as a substantive. But in some cases it per- 
forms some of the offices of a verb. "I want to read this book." Here 
it is both verb and substantive. As a verb, being transitive, it takes 
"book" for its object. As a substantive, it is an object to the verb 'Vant." 
"I want him to be a soldier." Here, "to be " acts as a copulat:* 7 ? verb 
between " him " and " soldier," putting them both in the same case. 
As a substantive, it is governed by a preposition. 

3. An Adverb may be used as a conjunction, to connect sentences; 
as, "when the ear heard me, then it blessed me" " While I live will I 
praise the Lord." Here, as an adverb of time, each modifies the verb; 
and as a conjunction, each connects its own sentence to the other, and 
shows the relations between them. Such words are called adverbial 
conjunctions, or conjunction adverbs. 

Adverbs may be used as adjectives; as, "He went into a far coun- 
try." 
Adverbs may be used as substantives ; as, " For a great while." 

Adverbs may be used as interjections: "Well!" "No I" "Yes." 
They are here substitutes for sentences. 

4. Prepositions may be used as adverbs, and are so, when they have 
no substantive as object, (unless they are merely separate particles, be- 
longing to the verb) ; as s " The ship was fast settling down." Here it is 
an adverb modifying " settling." "We walked down the street." Here 
it is a preposition, having for its object the substantive " street." 

In the Indo-European languages, verbs have particles used in deriv- 
ation. Some can be separated from the verb, and used in another part 
of the sentence. The English takes the same law from the Gothic 
family of languages, through the Saxon, as will be shown under Ety« 
mology. When the preposition has no object, and its use as an adverb 



PARTS OF SPEECH: GENERALLY, AB N RM ALL Y. 53 

is not required by the sense, it is to be considered a detached part of 
the verb ; as, " He is much talked of." 

5. Articles are sometimes used as adverbs, sometimes both as adverbs 
and conjunctions. That is to say, they apply their office of limiting sig- 
nifications, to adjectives and other adverbs, and thus work as adverbs. 
Sometimes they apply that office to sentences, and so do the work of 
conjunctions. They limit definitely or indefinitely, e. g.: " The men 
cheered the more loudly, and ran the more briskly." 

Here, the definite article appears in three places. In the first, it is 
kept to its proper office, before the substantive "men." In the second 
and third, it is used as an adverb. " Loudly " is an adverb, because it 
modifies the verb cheered. "More" is an adverb, because it modifies 
the adverb loudly (186, 3). "The " is attached to more; it is, therefore, 
used as an adverb. It unites, however, a part of its office, as article, 
with this use as an adverb. For the office of articles is, to limit signifi- 
cations, definitely or indefinitely, in substantives (189, 2). Strike out all 
after the word definitely, and you see what it does. It limits a signifi- 
cation definitely. 

"The more frequently we met, the more deeply we loved." Here it is 
used as a conjunction, as well as adverb; for a conjunction connects 
sentences. Here are two sentences, because there are two verbs. They 
are connected and related by "the." If we say, "the more frequently 
we met," and then stop, everybody would feel that the sense was not 
completed. But whatever word connects sentences, and shows their 
relations, is a conjunction, or used as a conjunction. "The," is, 
therefore, used as a conjunction. So that, in this case, we have one 
little word ; 1. keeping a part of its office as article ; 2. performing the 
office of an adverb ; 3 performing, as adverbs, what adverbs may, the 
office of a conjunction. It corresponds to the case of the participle, 
which 1. keeps a part of the office of a verb; 2. performs that of an ad- 
jective ; 3. performs, like other adjectives, that of a substantive. (130.) 

If, in these cases, we choose to regard the article as limited to its pro- 
per office, then the word, or group of words, must, by grammatical 
principle, be regarded as substantives, (189, 4,) since every word, or col- 
lection of words, limited by an article, kept to its office, is a substan- 
tive, or used as a substantive. 

The same principle belongs to all the parts of speech. 

These examples illustrate the fact that one part of speech may per- 
form the office of another. 

197. If the learner understand this fact distinctly, the whole subject 
of grammar will become clear, simple and interesting. Without the un- 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

derstanding of it, grammar will appear confused, with exceptions 
crowded on exceptions. 

The principle is applied by means of two canons, based on the fact, 
that, every word must be used normally, or abnormally. 

198. 1st Canon. — A word used normally in its office as 
one of the parts of speech, gives the name required by that 
office, to the word or clause to which it is related. 

e.g.: " The brave are honored." The verb "are" is here used in its 
proper office, as asserting. The word to which the verb is related is 
w brave." It is the subject of the assertion of the verb. It must, there- 
fore take the name of substantive. The verb, used normally, thus gives 
the name required by its office to the word "brave," and the name re- 
quired by it is substantive. 

199. 2d Canon. — A w T ord used abnormally receives the 
name of its use from the name of the word or clause to which 
it is related. 

e.g.: "He came the more readily." "Readily" and "more" being 
named adverbs, the article "the " is here used as an adverb. The article 
"the" being used abnormally, receives the name of its use from the name 
of the word "more." "The" is, therefore, used as an adverb, because 
" more " is an adverb. 

Obs. 1. — If we regard "the" as used normally, it is an article. Then 
the first canon may be applied. If "the " be an article, "more readily'' 
is a phrase used as a substantive. 

Obs. 2. — In such cases, the words, or clauses, to be parsed, appear in 
pairs, and each in the pair is used normally, or abnormally. The view 
taken of one in the pair, determines, generally, the view which must be 
taken of the other. In the example, "the" and "more" form the pair. 
If we regard "the " as an article, then, " more " is used as a substantive, 
because articles limit substantives. If we regard " more " as an adverb, 
then, "the" is used as an adverb, because a word modifying an adverb, 
is itself an adverb. We may thus apply both canons to one sentence 
in two ways of parsing. 



200. The sixth attainment in language is ability to distinguish the parts 
of speech, when the words are used abnormally. 

The mind must be disciplined, in this part of grammar, to regard 
solely the work done by a word in a sentence, and not the meaning of 
the word, apart. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: ABNORMALLY, PRACTICE. 55 

The sixth exercise is for the sixth attainment. 

201. Directions. — View the word or phrase, and its related 
word or phrase, as a pair. Determine, by the sense, in which 
one of the pair the word is used normally, and apply the 
canons. Then state what would be the parsing, if the other 
in the pair were regarded as used normally. 

Take, for example, the sentences already given. 

1. " The good die first." " He will not at all acquit the wicked" 

In the first sentence, "good" is one, and "die" is the other of the 
pair of related words. "Pie" is a verb used normally. The first 
canon, therefore, applies, and the verb gives the name substantive to 
"good." "Good" is the subject of the verb, and any word which is 
the subject of a finite verb, is a substantive, or used as a substantive 
(184, 4.) " Good" is therefore used as a substantive. 

If the word "good" be used normally, it will be an adjective, and 
will require the word "men" to be understood. 

In the second sentence, the two related words are "acquit" and 
"wicked." The word "acquit" is used normally, as a verb, which is tran- 
sitive by having an object. The first canon applies, and the verb gives 
the name substantive to the word " wicked." For, "wicked " is the ob- 
ject of the transitive verb " acquit;" and any word which is the object 
of a transitive verb is a substantive, or is used as a substantive, (284, 4.) 
" "Wicked " is therefore used as a substantive. 

If "wicked" be normally used, it is an adjective, and requires "peo- 
ple," to be understood, after it." 

2. "Ye both do, and will do, the things that we command you." In 
this case, "both," which is usually employed as an.adjective, is employed 
as a conjunction, to connect two sentences. 

The related words to be regarded, are "both" and " do." These form 
the pair. " Do " is used, normally, as a verb. The first canon, there- 
ffore, applies, and the verb gives the name, conjunction, to the word 
[•"both"; for "both" unites this verb, "do," to the second verb, "will 
do," and whatever word does so connect is a conjunction, or is used as a 
conjunction. "Both" is, therefore, used as a conjunction. 

"Both " is usually an adjective, as in the sentence "both men came." 
Like other adjectives, it may be employed as a substantive, as in the sen- 
tence " both of us are coming." (130.) 

B. "I saw the colonel leading a charge." "Leading" is here an ad- 
jective, qualifying "colonel," and a verb, having "charge' 7 for its object. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The word "leading" is related to "charge" and "colonel." With 
"charge" it forms one pair. The word "charge" is used, normally, as 
a substantive, and is the object of "leading." The first canon, therefore, 
applies, and the substantive gives the name, transitive verb, to "leading/' 
because a verb, which has a substantive for its object, is transitive, or 
used transitively. Therefore, "leading," in its relation to the word 
"charge," is used as a verb. 

With the word "colonel" another pair is formed. " Colonel" is used 
normally, and is, therefore, a substantive, qualified by "leading." The 
first canon applies, and the substantive, " colonel," gives the name, ad- 
jective, to the word "leading," because every word which qualifies a sub- 
stantive is an adjective, or used as an adjective. 

Therefore, in its relation to the word "colonel," "leading" is used as 
an adjective. 

4. " Leading such troops was pleasant." The word "leading" is re- 
lated to "pleasant" and to "troops." The first pair to be considered is 
formed by " leading" and "pleasant." Of these two, "pleasant" is nor- 
mally used as an adjective. It qualifies "leading," as shown by the 
sense; for, if the question be asked, What is pleasant? the answer is, 
" Leading is pleasant." The first canon, therefore, applies, and the word 
"pleasant" gives the name of substantive to the word "leading," 
because a word qualified by an adjective is a substantive, or is used as a 
substantive (185, 4). Therefore, in its relation to ; ' pleasant," the word 
"leading" is used as a substantive. 

The second pair is formed by "leading" and "troops." Of these, the 
second is used normally, as a substantive, since the word "troops" is 
the object of "leading." This is shown by the sense. 

The first canon, therefore, applies, and the substantive, " troops " gives 
the name verb to " leading." " Leading " is, therefore, used as a verb 
transitive, having for its object " troops." A word having a substantive 
for its object, either is or is used as a verb or a preposition, (184, 4, a.) 
"Leading" is not a preposition. Therefore, in its relation to "troops," 
"leading " is employed as a verb. 

It is thus proved that the same word is used in one sentence as a verb 
and adjective ; in another sentence as a verb and substantive, A word 
which thus participates in the offices of several parts of speech, is ap- 
propriately named a participle. 

The manner of distinguishing and defining the different parts of speech, 
and of applying the canons, is thus exemplified. 



PAKTS OF SPEECH: ABNORMALLY, PRACTICE. 57 

Let the learner apply the process to the following sentences, in writ- 
ten and oral exercises : 

" To improve is my desire." 

" What went ye out for to see ?" 

u I want to read this book." 

"I wish him to be a lawyer." 

" When the ear heard me, then it blessed me." 

" While I live will I praise the Lord." 

" He went into a far country." 

" This scene is far more beautiful." 

"For a great while, the country was agitated." 

" The ship was fast settling down. 11 

" We walked down the street." 

" He was much spoken of." 

11 The men cheered the more loudly, and ran the more briskly, as the 
enemy's fire poured on them more rapidly." 

" The more frequently we met, the more truly did we feel mutual es- 
teem." 



3* 



58 ENGLISH GliAMMAB. 



CHAPTER V. 

Synthetic Syntax: Generally — Normally. 

202. Rules of Synthetic Syntax are, principally, tho definitions of 
the parts of speech put into 'another form. The same relations of words 
in a sentence are regarded by both. For defining the parts of speech, 
the sentence is broken into its portions. In the Rules of Syntax, the 
portions are combined. But the basis for both is found in the relations 
that unite words in a sentence. 

203. These relations exist (and the learner needs to bear it constantly 
in mind) 1. in the Simple Sentence ; 2. between Two Simple Sentences. 

The following principles and explanations will prepare for understand- 
ing, and using the Rules of Syntax. 



Sec. 1. — Principles and Explanations. 

I. — In the Simple Sentence. 

(1.) Predicate. 

Every Predicate can be reduced to a substantive, or an adjective : 
as, "Man is an animal." "Man is mortal. 11 

(2.) Substantives, related to the Verb, or to each other. 

204. Substantives (including nouns and pronouns) and Verbs express 
their mutual relations in a sentence, or between sentences, by certain 
distinctions, which are : Person, Number, Case, and Gender. 

205. Person and Number apply to Substantives and Verbs: Case, to 
Substantives ; Gender, to Nouns and Pronouns, in their relation to each 
other. 



syntax: generally, normally. 59 

(a.) Person. 

206. Persons are distinctions of the person speaking from 
what is spoken to, or spoken of; as, "I am," "thou art," 
"he is." 

There are three Persons in grammar ; the first, second, and 
third. 

1. The First Person is that which represents the speaker; 
as, "I am." 

2. The Second Person is that which represents the person 
or thing spoken to ; as, "thou art." 

3. The Third Person is that which represents the person or 
thing spoken of; as, "he is," "she is," "it is." 

(&.) Numbers. 

207. Numbers are distinctions of unity from plurality; as, 
hand, hands; man, men. 

208. There are two Numbers in English Grammar: the 
Singular and the Plural. 

1. The Singular Number is that which does not signify 
more than one ; as man, hand ; I, thou, he ; I am, thou art, 
he is. 

2. The Plural Number is that which signifies more than 
one ; as men, hands : we, you, they ; we are, you are, they 
are. 

Obs. — The dual signifies iwo ; but it can only be traced now in a few 
words in English, such as both, either, whether, yoke, span, pair, and a 
few others. 

(c.) Case. 

209. Cases express the grammatical relations of the sub- 
stantives in a sentence. 

The relations of the substantives in a sentence, are those of 
dependence and independence. 

In their dependent relations, substantives are subjects, or objects : sub- 
jects to the verb, or objects of a verb, or preposition; as, " Winds blow." 
M Stars crowd the sky. 11 " Rain falls on the earth. 11 



60 ENGLISH GxlAMMAR. 

When they are subjects, the case is called direct, and they aro said to 
be in the Nominative Case. 

"When they are objects, they are said to be in one of the indirect cases 

The indirect cases vary in different languages.* In English, they are 
the Possessive and Objective. 

In their independent relations, substantives are freed from grammatical 
construction, not in sense, but among the words expressed. 

The case is then called independent, or absolute. The name for it 
varies in different languages. In some, it is called the Yocative, as in 
Latin, in English, it is called the Nominative Absolute, or Independent, 
because the form is like that of the Nominative. As, "0 John! come 
here." 

210. We are now prepared for definitions. 

Cases, dependent, are distinctions of the relations of sub- 
stantives f in a sentence, from their relations as objects, e. g. : 
" He saw me." " William struck the man." 

211. There are three dependent cases in English: the Nominative, the 
Objective, and the Possessive. 

1. The Nominative Case denotes that a substantive is the 
subject of the verb; as, "the boy swims;" "the bird flies ;" 
u to err is human;" "lie comes." 

2. The Objective Case denotes that a substantive is the ob- 
ject of a verb or preposition ; as, "I saw the man;" "I want 
to look ;" "the cloud flies over the hill." 

3. The Possessive Case denotes that one substantive is 
united to another, by the relation of possession; as, "the 
boy's book." The possessive is a substitute for a particular 
form of the objective, and is made in nouns by putting s, with 
an apostrophe, after the substantive possessing. The objective 
can be restored; as, "William's house," = "the house of 
William." 

4. There is one Independent Case in English. It is called, indifferent- 
ly : the independent case, the nominative independent, and the nomina- 
tive absolute. 

* As Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Ablative, and in the Sanscrit, Locative. 

fThe generic sense of the term substantive, as including nouns, pronouns, phrases, 
the infinitive form of the verb, and whatever is used substantively must be kept iu 
mind. It assists^ materially t in understanding grammar. 



syntax: generally, normally. 61 

The Independent Case denotes that a substantive (or word used sub- 
stantively) is freed from grammatical constructions; as, "0 Lord, hear! 
Lord, forgive I" 

KECAPITULATION. 
r 



Relations 

of 

Substantives. 



Dependent, . . 
Independent. 



As Subjects? Vase ] Nominative 



J Indepen- 
dent. 



(d.) Gender. / 

212. Genders are distinctions of substantives that represent 
j*> sex from those which do ; as it, he, she, man, ' woman, 

friend. In English, Gender is mainly a classification of nouns 
to suit their representation by pronouns. 

213. In nature are two sexes. Words, representing, may denote one 
of these, or neither, or either. If they denote one, definitely, they are 
Masculine, or Feminine ; if neither, Neuter ; if they do not denote defi- 
nitely, they are Common. 

214. There are, strictly, four genders: the Masculine, the Feminine, 
the Neuter, and the Common. The first three only are usually enu- 
merated. 

1. The Masculine Gender is that which signifies the male 
kind ; as, man, father, king. 

2. The Feminine Gender is that which signifies the female 
kind ; as woman, mother, queen. 

3. The Neuter Gender is that which signifies neither male 
nor female ; as stone, water, pencil, slate. 

4. The Common Gender is that which signifies either male 
or female ; as friend, cousin, neighbor. 

The reason why there must be four genders in English, is, that gen- 
der depends upon the use made of words in that language in regard to 
sex. Words are used in these four ways. This is the usage in English. 
Grammar must record facts, and not merely state what ought to be the 
usage, but what is. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(3.) Verb. 

215. A Verb kept to its proper office is called a finite verb. A verb 
ased beyond its proper office, is employed as a substantive, or adjective. 
If used as a substantive, it is said to be infinitive: as, "I want to run." 
The infinitive has "to " before the verb. If used as an adjective, the 
word in which it is so used is called a participle: as, "the man came 
running. 11 Participles, very generally, place ing, or ed, after the verb. 
The present explanation is sufficient for using rules of syntax. Infini- 
tives, and participles are to be more fully explained, whea. the parts of 
speech are considered specially. 

216. Every verb has a subject, which is a substantive. Every transi- 
tive verb has an object, which is a substantive: as, "man lives;" "fire 
burns wood." 

Correspondently, a verb which requires an object is a transitive verb. 

217. A verb used as a copulative, has a second subject after it, which 
is a predicate to that before it; as, " man is an animal" 

218; The relation of the verb to its subject or subjects, is called agree- 
ment ; to its object, or objects, government. 

219. The agreement of verb and subject is, by having the same num- 
ber and person in one, as in the other. 

(4.) Pronoun. 

220. A Pronoun represents another substantive, expressed or implied, 
and called its antecedent. To represent, it must agree in its modifica- 
tions. " The rock had a hole in it" "The boy had an umbrella over 
him." 

(5.) Adjective. 

221. An Adjective may be used as an epithet by its substantive, or as 
a predicate to it, after the verb. In both cases it qualifies the substan- 
tive; as, "the honest man came;" "the man is honest." 



(6.) Adverb. 

222. The Adverb must always be referred to a verb, or adjective, di- 
rectly, or through another adverb. "A truly honest man." "The man 
is, very evidently, honest." 



syntax: between two sentences. 63 



II. — Befoveen Two Simple Sentences. 

223. (1.) Two simple sentences, with their verbs, may be both ex- 
pressed. They can then be connected and related by conjunctions, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

The second sentence may be represented, but not expressed. 

In this case, the word or words representing are said to be without 
grammatical construction till the represented sentence is restored. 

When a substantive thus represents, it is said to be in the Case Inde- 
pendent, (213, 4.) When an interjection does so, it is simply said to be 
without grammatical construction ; as, "Ho! John! come here. :1 

(2.) Conjunctions, in their proper office, apply between sentences only. 
But for convenience, they are applied to words within the sentence. 
Applied to substantives in a sentence, they represent Number. 

The Plural Number is represented by the conjunction "and," which 
requires them to be taken jointly ; the Singular, by the conjunction "or" 
or "nor," with the reciprocals "either" and "neither." 

224. Consequently, when two or more subjects of one verb are con- 
nected by "and," they put the verb into the Plural Number; "when," 
"by," "or," "nor," into the Singular. 

For the same reason, the Pronoun representing them comes under the 
same rule ; as, " John, Thomas and Peter are her e^ with one horse for 
them all." " It is John, or Thomas, or Peter that is coming over the hill, 
and he has the horse." 

225. These principles and explanations will make the rules of syntax 
to be understood, because their reason will appear. Rules of syntax 
are necessary results from the simple and fundamental laws of language. 

226. But each rule of syntax will again throw light back on the parts 
of speech, so that the learner who wants to name each word without 
mistake will have farther assistance from the syntax. 

221. Analytic and Synthetic Syntax thu3 illustrate each other at every 
step. 

228. Also, every rule of Syntax can have its last part put first; and, 
when this is done, important principles of grammar are often shown. 

229. Accordingly, every rule of syntax will have under it, 1, the Con 
verse of the rule ; 2, the Test shown for distinguishing the parts of 
speech, unless this were given under the parts of speech. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

I. — Subjective Combination. 

230. 1. Predicative. 

Rule 1 . — A Substantive, the subject of the finite verb, is 
in the Nominative Case to the verb : as, "men are mortal." 

Rule 2. — The finite Verb agrees with its subject or nomir 

native, in number and person : as, " "Who art thou that re- 

pliest?" 

Converse. — The second rule is the converse of the first. The con- 
verse of both is, that substantives are subject to the assertion of the verb. 

Test. — A word or phrase used as the subject of a finite verb, is a 
substantive, or used as a substantive. 

Rule 3. — The Substantive Yerb "to be," or any verb 
used like it, as a copula, takes the same case after as before 
it, the substantive after being a predicate to the former. 

Copulative Verbs may take the same case after as before 
them ; as, " Oaks are trees ;" " He was named John ;" " I 
want him to he a soldier." 

Converse. — One substantive may be referred to another, as its class 
or correspondent. 

Test. — When one substantive is thus referred to another, through an 
intervening verb, that verb is copulative. 

Rule 4. — Substantives in apposition agree in case ; as, 
"Cicero, the orator, was consul." 

231. 2. Attributive. 

Rule 5. — Adjectives qualify Substantives, as predicates 
after the verb, and as epithets near the substantive ; as, 
" Flowers are perishable ;" "A perishable flower blooms." 



syntax: generally, normally. 65 

Converse. — Substantives can be qualified by adjectives as predicates, 
or epithets. 

Test. — Any word, or phrase, qualified by an adjective, is a substan- 
tive, or used as a substantive. 

Eule 6. — Articles reduce their substantives from a general 
to a particular signification: as, "a man;" "the man;" "the 
men." 

Converse. — Substantives are viewed in classes, and may be made to 
signify, one in a class, or a part of the class. 

Test. — A word, limited by an article kept to its proper office, is a 
substantive, or used as a substantive. 

Rule 7. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other ad- 
verbs ; as, "he flies swiftly ;" a his flight was very remarkably 
swift." 

Converse. — Any verb, adjective, or adverb, may be modified. 

Test. — Any word, modified by an adverb, is an adverb, adjective, or 
verb. 

232. II.~Objective Combination. 

Rule 8. — A Transitive Verb governs substantives, which 
are its objects, in the Objective Case : as, " The sun warms 
the earth." 

Converse. — Substantives may be objects in the objective case, by a 
transitive verb. 

Test. — A word, or phrase, made the direct object of a transitive verb, 
is a substantive, or used as a substantive. 

If there be a transitive verb in a sentence, there must be an object. 

Rule 9. — A Preposition governs Substantives, which are 
its objects, in the Objective Case, and connects them by rela- 
tions to the verb, or some other word in the sentence ; as, 
" Science enlightens the minds of men." 

Converse. — Substantives may be objects in the objective case, by a 
preposition. 

Test 1. — A word, or phrase, the object of a preposition, kept to its 
office, is a substantive, or used as a substantive. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Test 2. — If any particle causes a substantive to be in the objective 
case, that particle is a preposition, or used as a preposition. 

Rule 10. — A Substantive, in the Possessive Case, is gov- 
erned by the substantive possessed, or through substitution 
by a preposition understood; as, " Peter's house." = " The 
house of Peter." 

Converse. — Two substantives may be united in the relation of pos- 
sessing and possessed. 

Test. — Two words united by the Possessive Case, are substantives, or 
used as substantives. 

233. III. — Representative Combination. 

Rule 11. — One Part of Speech may be represented by 
another, and one used in the office of another. 

Rule 12.— Pronouns agree in Person and Number with 
the substantives which they represent, and which are called 
their antecedents ; as, " The men came with dust on thern." 

Converse. — Substantives can be represented by pronouns, and, to be 
so, are regarded as having gender; as, " the ship had a hole in her bot- 
tom." 

Test. — A word or phrase represented by a pronoun is a substantive, 
or used as a substantive. 

Rule 13. — A Yerb in the Infinitive Mood is used as a sub- 
stantive under the rules for substantives, and as a verb under 
those rules for verbs which are not limited by the word finite ; 
as, u to he good is to he happy." 

Converse. — Yerbs may be used as substantives. 

Test. — A word which, without the preposition "to," could assert, is, 
when used with it, a verb in the infinitive, and employed as a substantive. 

Rule 14. — Participles are used as adjectives, to qualify, 
and are used as verbs, under the rules for verbs, when not 
limited by the term finite. As Adjectives, participles may be 
used as substantives; as, "The man was driving & horse;" 
"Fast driving is often dangerous.' 7 

Converse, — Yerbs may be used as adjectives; and adjectives as nouns. 



syntax: generally, normally. 67 

Test. — A word which can be used both as verb and adjective, is a 
participle. 

Rule 15. — A Preposition, without a governing word, is 
used as an adverb ; or is a separable particle of the verb. 
Converse. — Prepositions may be used as Adverbs. 

234. IV.— Two Simple Sentences, Connected. 

(1.) Both Sentences Expressed. 

Rule 16. — Conjunctions connect two sentences, and show 
the relations between them. They may also connect the parts 
of one sentence ; as, "If there be too much rain, we may ex- 
pect autumnal diseases." " This and that horse make a good 

team." 

Rule 17. — Conjunctions uniting two or more substantives 
by "and" give the plural, and by "or," "nor," the Singular 
Number, when agreement with the verb or pronoun is re- 
quired ; as, " The moon and sun are heavenly bodies, which 
act by fixed laws." "Attraction or repulsion is the funda- 
mental law." 

Converse. — Sentences may be connected by relations of thought. 
Conjunctions, applied to words, may imply several sentences, one for 
each of those words ; as, " oaks, maples, and beeches are trees ;==the 
oak is a tree, the maple is a tree, the beech is a tree." "Washington 
was good, ivise, and great ;=he was good, he was wise, he was great." 

Test. — A word uniting two sentences is a conjunction, or used as a 
conjunction. 

(2,) One Sentence Expressed. 
One " Represented. 

Rule 18. — An Interjection has no grammatical construction ; 
as, "Hail! holy Light !" 

Rule 19.- — A Substantive, or word used as a substantive, 
may be freed from grammatical construction. A noun or pro- 
noun is then in the Independent Case. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

235. The seventh attainment in language is to be able to apply the Rules 
of Syntax to sentences, generally and normally. 
The seventh exercise is for this attainment. It consists of two parts. 

1. By the sense, and by the explanations given, distinguish Person, 
Number, Case, and Gender, as they apply to verbs or substantives, and 
the infinitive in verbs. 

2. Apply the Rules of Syntax, being guided by the sense. With each 
Rule of Syntax, give, 1, its Converse; 2, its Test or Tests. 

Example: "Virtues bless men." 

The word " virtues " is a substantive, because the subject, and a noun, 
because a name ; a common noun, because the name of a class. 1. It 
is of the third person, because spoken of (206,3;) 2. Plural number, be- 
cause it signifies more than one (20?, 2.) I know it to signify more than 
one, by the sense. I know the sense, by the language used being native 
to me. 3. It is in the Nominative case, because the subject of the verb; 
4. Neuter gender, because it expresses no sex. The Rule of Syntax is, the 
1st. " A substantive, the subject of a verb, is in the nominative case to the 
verb." The Converse is the 2d rule of syntax ; The finite verb agrees with 
its nominative in number and person. This verb is finite, because not in- 
finitive. The Test for parts of speech, drawn from the rules is, that a 
word, the subject of a finite verb, is a substantive. (230.) 

" Bless" is a verb, because it asserts and unites the sentence; active, 
by the sense; transitive, because having an object; finite, because not 
in the infinitive. It is in the third person, plural number, because its 
subject is in that person and that number, and the two must agree (230, 2). 
Case and Gender do not apply to verbs. The rule of syntax is the second 
already given, and the converse and test are the same as before. 

This process is to be performed, 1, by writing ; 2, orally. 

Sentences for Exercise. 

For Rule 1. — " Suspicions among thoughts are like to bats among 
birds; they ever fly best by twilight." 
R. 2. — " If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small." 
R. 3. — "He was named Emperor. He seems to be a soldier." 
R. 4. — "This was said of Demosthenes, not the orator, but the general." 
" Hail, holy Light ! offspring of heaven first-born ; 
Or, of the Eternal, co-eternal beam, 
May I express Thee unblamed." 



syntax: generally, abnormally. 69 

R. 5. — " To die is as natural as it is to be bora." 

M Revengeful persons die like witches ; their life i3 mischievous, and 

their end is unfortunate." 
R. 6. — "A King, Emperor, or President, is the life of the law." 
" Piety and Justice are the supporters of government." 
" The evil which men do lives after them." 
R. 7. — "He that walketh uprightly walketh surely." 
R. 8. — " To remove ambition from a soldier, is to unbuckle his spurs." 
R. 9. — "Interest brings the money of a nation into the hands of a 

few. The lender is at certainties, and the borrower is at uncertainties. 

At the end of the game, the largest part of the money will be in the 

box. 

R. 10. — "Becket's crosier, and Henry's sword, were in conflict." 

R. 11. — " The better we are, the happier we are." 

R. 12. — " If a man look sharply he will see fortune ; for, though she be 

blind, she is not invisible." 
R. 13. — "To err is human; to forgive, divine." 
"What went ye out for to see ?" 
R. 14. — " Praying is acting. Believing is doing." 
R. 15. — " Great men in place are talked of; and after death, thought of." 
R. 16. — "When it goeth well with the righteous, the city rejoiceth; 

but when the wicked perish, there is shouting." 
R. 17. — "Life and death are in the hand of the Lord." 
R. 18. — "0! thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my 

fathers!" 



Sec. Z.—Rules of Syntax; Generally — Abnormally, 

236. Sentences are sometimes so expressed that the Rules of Syntax 
cannot be directly applied till some change has been made. 

The sentence may then be considered as abnormally expressed, or the 
Rules of Syntax, as abnormally applied. (170.) 

The principal changes are by substitution, transposition, and el- 
lipsis. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

By substitution, we put one word for another, as its equivalent, the 
better to determine the sense, and thus to fix the relations, to which 
the Rules of Syntax apply. 

e.g.: If we were to parse the sentence, "What went ye out for to 
see ?" we should have no difficulty with any part till we came to the 
words for to see. Is for used as an adverb, or is it kept to its office as a 
preposition? If it be a preposition, what is its object? How are the 
words, to see, to be parsed ? If we substitute for, to see, its equivalent, 
seeing, and suppose for a moment the sentence to read, " What went ye 
out for seeing V we find that for is a preposition, and that to see is used 
as a substantive, and governed by that preposition, while in its office as 
a transitive verb, it governs what. Substitution thus determines the 
sense, and fixes the relations when they are doubtful. 

By transposition we change the order of words in a sentence, that the 
application of the Rules of Syntax may be simplified. 

e.g. : The first lines of the "Paradise Lost" present the words in an order 
inverted. By transposing them, so as to read: "Sing, heavenly muse, 
of man's first disobedience, and (of) the fruit of that forbidden tree . . . 

," the order is made direct, and the rules can be directly applied. 

The passage is given on another page. 

These slight changes need no further explanation. Ellipsis, the re- 
maining mode of change, requires a more full consideration. 

Ellipsis. 

231. The words necessary for the construction of a sentence, accord- 
ing to the Rules of Syntax, are not always expressed. They are left to 
be supplied by the mind, to which the sentence is addressed, and are 
therefore said to be understood. They are understood, because they can 
be supplied by the understanding, e. g. : " The common and statute 
law." The word "law" is understood after "common," and "the" 
before "statute." 

238. A term has been borrowed from the Greek, to express this omis- 
sion of words which are understood. The term is Ellipsis, which means, 
literally, the act of leaving out. 

Ellipsis, in grammar, is the omission of some word or words required 
for the fulfilment of a Rule of Syntax. A sentence, with such omission, 
is said to be elliptical. When the omitted words are restored, the Ellip- 
sis is said to be supplied. But the same thing is meant, when we speak 
of "supplying words which are understood.' 1 '' Obs. — The Greek term, 
Ellipsis, has been borrowed in place of the Saxon word, Understanding, 
because it furnishes the adjective elliptical, and because the word " under- 
standing " has so many meanings, that its use might cause uncertainty. 



syntax: abnokmally, ellipsis. 71 

239. It is the custom of language to be elliptical. Language is cm- 
ployed for definite purposes, among which is the communication of 
thought in satisfactory forms. Words not necessary for that purpose, 
are omitted. If they were used when unnecessary, the form would be 
unsatisfactory, because tedious. All men find more pleasure in acquir- 
ing an idea rapidly than slowly. They are wearied with needle^ 
words. 

For example : when the Spartan mother gave her son his shield, before 
battle, she pointed to it, and only said, "With, or on it." When the 
Duke of Wellington called the guards from the ground to attack the 
French at Waterloo, he said, " Up guards, and at them." Every one 
feels that the force of such expressions would be lost if the words were 
supplied which are understood, e. g.: "Come back a victor, with your 
shield on your arm, or be borne back on your shield as one who fell hon- 
orably in battle." or "Guards, get up from the ground and rush at the 
enemy." 

240. Ellipsis is considered by many grammarians as only a figure of 
speech; that is, a deviation from common use, and hence they are 
obliged to multiply exceptions and observations under the Rules of 
Syntax. The learner, tracing these numerous exceptions and observ- 
ations, is bewildered, and ceases to regard grammar as a science of fixed 
and simple principles. In works on grammar, prepared for readers, it 
may be well to multiply arbitrary exceptions, as the caprices of usage, 
and to shun explanations which are based on the supply of Ellipsis. 
But in text-books, such a plan increases so much the difficulties of learn- 
ers, that it should not be adopted. Grammar is the application, to varied 
combinations, of a few clear principles. 

241. In this course, Ellipsis will be regarded as the custom of lan- 
guage, and the following rule will be applied in the Syntax. 

242. Rule. — "Words understood must be supplied, in order 
to bring every grammatical sentence under the Rules of Syn- 
tax, and to avoid the multiplication of exceptions. 

243. The following examples and observations will illustrate the sub- 
ject of Ellipsis.* 

1. The Ellipsis of the Article is used; as, "A man, woman, and 
child: " that is, "A man, a woman, and a child." "A house and gar- 
den ; " that is, " A house and a garden." " The sun and moon ; " that is, 
" The sun and the moon." "The day and hour;" that is, "The day and 

* Many of the examples are from Murray. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the hour." In all these instances, the Article being once expressed, the 
repetition of it becomes unnecessary. 

2. The Noun is frequently omitted in the following manner: as, "The 
laws of God and man ;" that is, " The laws of God and the laws of 
man." 

3. The Ellipsis of the Adjective is used in the following manner : as, 
"A delightful garden and orchard;" that is, "A delightful garden and a 
delightful orchard." "A little man and woman;" that is, "A little man 
and a little woman." 

4. The following is the Ellipsis of the Pronoun : as, " I love and fear 
him;" that is, "Hove him, and I fear him." "My house and lands;" 
that is, " My house and my lands." "This is the man they love;" in- 
stead of "This is the man whom they love." "These are the goods they 
bought;" for, "These are the goods which they bought." "We speak 
that we do know, and testify that we have seen;" for, "We speak that 
which we do know, and testify that which we have seen." 

5. The Ellipsis of the Verb is used in the following instances : as, 
"The man was old and crafty;" that is, "The man was old, and the man 
was crafty." " She was young, and beautiful, and good;" that is, " She 
was young, she was beautiful, and she was good." "Thou art poor, and 
wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would fill up 
the Ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before 
each of the adjectives. "I went to see and hear him;" that is, " I went 
to see and I went to hear him." In this instance there is not only an 
Ellipsis of the governing verb I went, but likewise of the sign of the in- 
finitive mood. 

Bo, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxilia- 
ries of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to spare the repe- 
tition of the verb: as, "He regards his word, but thou dost not;" that 
is, "dost not regard it." " We succeeded, but they did not;" "did not 
succeed." "I have learned my task, but thou hast not;" "hast not 
learned." "They must, and they shall be punished;" that is, "They 
must be punished." 

6. The Ellipsis of the Adverb is used in the following manner: as, 
" He spoke and acted wisely;" that is, "He spoke wisely, and he acted 
wisely." "Thrice I went and offered my service;" that is, "Thrice I 
went, and thrice I offered my service." 

7. The Ellipsis of the Preposition, as well as of the Verb, is seen in 
the following instances: as, "He went into the abbeys, halls, and pub- 
lic buildings;" that is, "He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, 



syntax: abnormally, ellipsis. 73 

and he went into the public buildings." " Ho also went through all the 
streets and lanes of the city;" that is, "through all the streets, and 
through all the lanes," etc. " He spoke to every man and woman there ;" 
that is, " to every man, and to every woman." "This day, next month, 
last year ;" that i3, " On this day, in the next month, in the last year." 
"The Lord do that which seemeth him good;" that is, "May the Lord do 
that which seemeth to Him good." 

8. The Ellipsis of the Conjunction is as follows: as, "They confess 
the power, wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator;" that is, "The 
power, and wisdom, and goodness, and 46ve of," etc. "Though I love him, 
I do not flatter him;" that is, "Though I love him, yet I do not flatter 
him." 

9. The Ellipsis of the Interjection is not very common ; it, however, 
is sometimes used : as, "Oh! pity and shame!" that is, "Oh pity! Oh 
shame!" 

As the Ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English lan- 
guage, numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more 
can be admitted here. 

In the following instance there is a very considerable one : as, " He 
will often argue, that, if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we 
should gain from one nation ; and if another, from another ;" that is, 
" He will often argue, that, if this part of our trade were well cultivated, 
we should gain from one nation, and if another part of our trade were 
well cultivated, we should gain from another nation." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the Ellipsis: 
as, " Wo is me ;" that is, " Wo is to me." " To let blood ;" that is, " To 
let out blood." " To let down;" that is, "To let it fall or slide down." 
"To walk a mile;" that is, "To walk through the space of a mile." " To 
sleep all night;" that is, "To sleep through all the night." "To go a 
fishing;" "To go a hunting;" that is, "To go on a fishing voyage or 
business." "To go on a hunting party." "I dine at two o'clock;" that 
is, "at two of the clock." "By sea, by land, on shore;" that is, " By 
the sea, by the land, on the shore." 

" The land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted 
with the command;" that is, "those persons intrusted," or, "those 
who were intrusted." " If he had read further, he would have found 
several of his objections might have been spared;" that is, "he would 
have found that several of his objections," etc. "There is nothing men 
are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters;" that 
is, "nothing in which men," and, "than in knowing." "I scarcely 
know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and use;" 

4 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it should be, "which would yield," etc. "In the temper of mind he waa 
then;" that is, "in which he then was." "The little satisfaction and 
consistency, to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have met with, 
made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures;" that 
is, "which are to be found," and, "which I have met with." "He de- 
sired they might go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks 
to whom only they were due ;" that is, " to Him to whom," etc. 

10. Where the category of quantity is included in the sense, there is, 
necessarily, Ellipsis. 

This is the case where Time, Value, "Weight,' or Measure may be 
expressed. 

The word to be supplied in such instances, is, usually, a preposition; 
as, "He was absent five weeks ■,"—" during five weeks;" or "for five 
weeks." 

Sometimes, the word expressive of quantity may be required, and we 
can supply such expressions; as, "to the amount of," "to the extent of," 
or others of like purport, representing the category of quantity ; e.g. : " It 
weighs six %)ounds"=z u it weighs to the amount of six pounds." 

"The wall is ten feet high, and four thick, "—■" The wall is high to the 
extent of ten feet;" "It is thick to the extent of four feet." 

"He is eighty years old,"=*"He is old to the amount of eighty years." 

"The ship is now twenty fathoms down, "W The ship is down to the 
extent of twenty fathoms." 

"It is worth eight eagles, "=*" It is worth to the amount of eigh* 
eagles." 

In all such instances, we should parse the substantive as governed by 
a preposition understood. 

By parsing in this manner, and by supplying Ellipsis in the manner 
indicated, we preserve the analogies and principles of the language. 
The learner finds simplicity and uniformity in the science. 

Some grammarians would, in such instances as have been given, not 
supply Ellipsis, but make an Objective Case, without a governing word, 
calling it the objective of Time, Yalue, Weight, or Measure. 

This view introduces an entire deviation from the settled principles oi! 
English Syntax ; it destroys, completely, all scientific regularity in 
grammar; it contradicts every correct definition of the Objective Case. 
It is, therefore, regarded as erroneous. 

If, however, the word " worth " be viewed as a preposition, in such 
sentences as "It is worth a shilling," this mode of parsing is consistent 



syntax: abnormally, ellipsis. 75 

with defined grammatical principles. A word usually employed as au 
adjective, performs, then, the office of a preposition. 

11. If we were to parse the sentence, "I was promised a book," we 
must supply the Ellipsis, and say, "I was promised that I should have a 
book." * ' 

Strictly speaking, the sentence is ungrammatical. A Passive Yerb is 
always the reciprocal of an Active Transitive Yerb. and the object of 
the latter can alone become the subject of the former, e.g. : " James 
struck me." The reciprocal is, " I was struck by James." 

"He promised to me a book." The reciprocal is, "A book was prom- 
ised to me." It is correct, therefore, to say, " To me was promised a 
book," but it is not so to say " I was promised a book." 

Examples of Ellipsis Supplied. 

1. Of the Article. — -'The year, (the) month, (the) day, and (the) 
place must be specified." " They gave the Indian an axe, and (a) blan- 
ket for a bear, (a) deer, and (a) wild turkey." 

2. Op tile Noun. — "Bad actions lead to worse (actions)." 

3. Of the Adjective. — "These principles are applicable to the first 
subject, but not (applicable) to the second." 

3. Of the Pronoun. — Leave (thou) there thy gift before the altar, 
and go (thou) thy way." " Read (thou) not to contradict, but (read thou) 
to weigh and consider." 

4. Of the Yerb. — "Reading makes a full man, conference (makes) 
a ready man, and writing (makes) an exact man." 

5. Yerb and Noun. — "Histories make men wise; poets, (make men) 
witty ; the mathematics, (make men) subtle ; logic and rhetoric, (make 
men) able to contend." 

6. Of the Participle. — 

" His knowledge (being) measured to his state and place, 
His time (being) a moment, and a point (being) his space." 
*l. Of the Adverb. — "He can act independently of public opinion, but 
not (independently) of conscience. 

8. Of the Conjunction. — "But the fruit of the spirit is love, (and) 
joy, (and) peace." 

9. Of the Preposition. — "He gave (to) me his hand." "We walked 
(through) ten miles." " He ruled like (to) a tyrant." 

10. Of the Interjection. — "Oh! the folly and (oh! the) cruelty of 
Buch conduct." 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. Of Phrases or Clauses. — "Monarchies incline the minds of 
learned men to profit and pleasure; republics, (incline the minds of 
learned men) to glory and vanity." 

"What words are understood in the following 

Examples for Practice t 

11 We are inclined to love who love us." 

"The horse I rode fell down." 

" Though I love, I neither fear nor flatter him." 

11 We speak that we do know." 

11 A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds. Therefore, let him 
k seasonably water the one, and destroy the other." 

" In high station, ask counsel of both times : of the ancient time, what 
is best ; and of the latter, what is fittest." 

" As in nature, things move more violently to their place, and calmly 
in their place : so virtue in ambition is violent ; in authority, settled and 
calm." 

"Boldness is blind; wherefore, it is ill in counsel, but good in execu- 
tion. For in counsel it is good to see dangers ; in execution not to see 
them, unless they be very great." 

" Discretion in speech is more than eloquence." 

Apply the rule for Ellipsis, (242,) to the following sentences: 

"I will pull down my barns, and build greater." 

" There were happy boys and girls." 

" He gave a hatchet, knife, and dirk for the deer." 

" He is wiser than I." 

" I am older than he." 

"The Latins imitated the Greeks; the French the Latins, and the 
English the French." 

"Though tempted, he was steadfast." 

"I am off for Europe." 

" Up, men I and fight." 

"You have reproached, but I will not." 

" You will be loved and honored for your deeds." 

" He spoke, wrote, and sang well." 

" Over hill and plain they sought the body." 

" A horse I a horse ! my kingdom for a horse I" 

"Studies serve for delight, ornament, and ability. Their chief use 
for delight is, in retirement ; for ornament, in speech ; for ability, in 
business." 



syntax: abnormally, ellipsis. 77 

Let instructor and pupil remember that on every day there is to be 
Borne exercise in parsing, and that in every exercise, so much is to be in- 
troduced as has been learned, but nothing that is not yet learned. 

The subject of Ellipsis should be thoroughly understood, because the 
more recent grammarians do not treat it as a law of language, and the 
prevalent style of writing has been seriously affected by their views. 
For conciseness, sprightliness and force in speech, there must be Ellipsis. 
Examples may be seen in Bacon, and Shakspeare, who are eminently 
elliptical. So are Thucydides and Tacitus. Grammar, thus studied, will 
form a basis for style. 

TJie eighth attainment is ability to apply the Rules of Syntax abnormally, 
principally by supplying Ellipsis. To this may be added, when required. 
Transposition and Substitution. 

The examples, observations, and rules just given, are for this attainment. 

Apply Substitution for explaining the grammatical principles in this 
sentence : 

" To live is to suffer, and yet to live is to enjoy." 

Apply Transposition and the rule for Ellipsis to these first lines from 
the "Paradise Lost:" 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one Greater Man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse!" 
Apply the rule for Ellipsis to this passage : 

11 Oh ! could I flow like thee, and make thy stream 
My great example, as it is my theme ! 
Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Analytic Syntax: Specifically. 

244. The Parts of Speech, and the Rules of Syntax have, thus far, 
been regarded generally. 

For tile Parts of Speech, the reader has looked to the use of the word. 
For Rules of Syntax he has looked to relations, and to the sense. 

He has not had his memory burdened with details of inflections, of 
conjugations, of letters, and of syllables at the beginning, but he has ap- 
plied his reason to clear principles, drawn from the structure of the sen- 
tence. 

He will find great advantages from the method which he has pursued. 
He has now the principles of grammar. He can keep them in mind by 
constant practice, as he now comes to the details which address the 
memory. 

His attainments now enable him : 1. To distinguish the Parts of 
Speech in Universal and English Grammar, normally or abnormally 
used ; 2. To analyze all Sentences ; 3. To apply Rules of Syntax in Uni- 
versal and in English Grammar, without, and with Ellipsis. The crowds 
of exceptions usually perplexing English grammars, he has embraced 
under abnormal use. He has made the whole subject of grammar uni- 
form and clear, by regarding abnormal use as being only a difference of 
form, in which changes being made, the laws of grammar apply with 
uniformity. 

Accordingly, we will now pass to the Parts of Speech, and the Rules 
of Syntax, regarded specifically. 

By this is meant : 1. That each Part of Speech will be explained, with 
its modifications ; 2. That each Rule of Syntax will be given, with the 
specifications and details which it may require. 

The Parts of Speech will be taken in the order which will giv'e most 
simplicity: 1. Those which act on, or for a whole sentence, viz.: Inter- 
jection and Conjunction ; 2. Those which have fewest modifications, viz. : 



PARTS OF SPEECH: SPECIFICALLY. 79 

Adjective, Article, Adverb ; 3. Those which are linked with the substan- 
tive, and have most modifications, viz. : the Preposition, Noun, Pronoun 
and Verb, 

The Verb, by this order, comes last, as having most modifications; 
while, in the order of analysis, it was first. 

Parts of Speech: Specifically. 

245. The ninth attainment in language is to be able to give the details 
and modifications belonging to each part of speech. 
Such is the object of the following explanations. 



80 ENGLISH GRAM MAB. 



Sec. 1. — Interjections. 



246. An Interjection is a part of speech expressing emotion 
or will, by substituting a word for a sentence (189, 3); e. g.: 
"Oh ! what a fall was there." 

247. Interjections illustrate a principle in language. It is, that, with 
one complete simple sentence, there may be connected another simple 
sentence* which is not fully expressed. The other sentence may be re- 
presented by a single word, such as an interjection ; or, parts of it may 
be given, and the rest left, to be supplied by the mind. The part given 
may be a substantive, or a word used as a substantive, with or without 
an adjective, e. g. : "the rudder breaking, we could not steer." 

In all such cases there is one general and simple rule, which comes 
from the first principles of language, and of parsing ; it is this : 

Restore the omitted sense, or parse the words disconnected, 
as having no grammatical construction. 

248. This covers the cases. 

1. Of the Interjection : 

2. Of the Independent Case: 

(1.) In partial construction ; as, " He being come, we are three." 
(2.) In address; as, "Friend, wherefore art thou come?" {Latin 

Vocative.) 
(3.) In exclamation ; as, "Hail! \\o\y light ! " 
(4.) In repetition ; as, tl My child! where is she?" 

3. Of the Infinitive Absolute ; as, " to confess the truth, I was in fault ;" 
"to begin with the first;" "to proceed;" "to conclude." If the con- 
struction be restored, it is, "I confess that I was in fault." 

Use, 

Interjections (that is, words commonly used as such) are 
sometimes employed in the functions of other parts of speech. 

e. g. : " We hail him, Lord." "Hail! king of the Jews! " 

The same word is, in the first example, used as a verb, and in the 
second, as an interjection. " His style has many ohs, and ahs." Ohs and 
ahs are substantives. 

Other parts of speech (or words used as such) are some- 
times employed as interjections. 

e.g.: "Well! have you any excuse?" (Int.) "The child is now 
well" (Adj.) 



PARTS OF SPEECH: CONJUNCTIONS. 81 

Interjections are parsed, by stating the part of speech, the 
reason, the emotion expressed, and the rule of syntax. 

e. g. : "Oh! I was in such agony I " 

u Oh !" is an interjection, because it expresses an emotion — that of pain. 
The Rule of Syntax is the 18th. "An interjection has no grammatical 
construction" (234). A list of interjections has been given under Univer- 
sal Grammar. 

The Rule of Syntax demanded by the principle, which interjections 
illustrate, (247) i3 the 19th. "A substantive, or word used as a substan- 
tive may be freed from grammatical construction. " The 11th rule may bo 
applicable. 



Sec. 2. — Conjunctions. 

249. A Conjunction is a part of speech used for connecting 
sentences, and showing their mutual relations, and which may 
connect parts of a single sentence. 

It has, therefore, two offices, the primary and the subordinate ; the first 
for sentences, the second for parts of a sentence. 

Primary Office of Conjunctions. 
Divisions. 

250. Conjunctions, in their primary office for connecting sen- 
tences, are divided into three classes : the Copulative, the 
Disjunctive, and the Conditional. They are usually in 
pairs, with one as the reciprocal of the other. 

The reason of the division is in the relations of two sentences. Every 
sentence is an assertion. The assertions of two sentences, when con- 
nected, are independent or dependent. If dependent, one depends on 
the affirming or denying of the other. 

When they are independent we use the Copulative ; as, " Thou hast 
loth seen him, and it is he that talketh with thee." 

"When one depends on the affirming of the other, we use the Condi- 
tional; as, "If he come, I will see him." 

When one depend J on the denial of the other, we use the Disjunctive; 

as, "either you or I must go, "=='•' If you do not go, then I must go." The 

meaning of the Disjunctive is, that some one is to be chosen out of two 

or more If, between two, we reject one ; we affirm or accept the other. 

4* 



82 ENGLISH. GRAMMAR. 

The way is now prepared for the definitions to be understood. 

251. A Copulative Conjunction for sentences, is one that 
unites two or more simple independent sentences. 

The principal Copulative Conjunction in English, is, and, 
with its reciprocal, botJi. 

252. A Conditional Conjunction for sentences, is one that 
unites two or more simple dependent sentences, and makes the 
assertion of one depend on affirming the other, or others. 

The principal Conditional, in English, is if, with its recipro- 
cal, then. 

253. A Disjunctive Conjunction for sentences, is one that 
unites two or more simple dependent sentences, and makes the 
assertion of one depend on denying the other, or others. 

The principal Disjunctive, in English, is or, with its recipro- 
cal either. 

254. The division to which a Conjunction belongs, must be determined 
in parsing, by the sense, since the same Conjunctions may be used in 
different ways. 

255. As Conjunctions are primarily for two simple sentences, they are 
naturally in pairs ; one, with the first sentence, anticipating the second ; 
one, with the second sentence, throwing the attention back on the first. 
In this case, one is called the reciprocal of the other. But the language 
does not always give two words. The same word may be repeated as 
the reciprocal. Sometimes, however, the sentences are connected only in 
sense, logically; and not in consiruction, grammatically. Then, a con- 
junction is without a reciprocal. This is the case with for, hut, that, 
lest, than. 

The following list includes the more important, which will occur in 
parsing : 

( And — and ; both — and ; as — as ; as — so ; neither — nor ; 
Copulative, 1 whether — or. 

( Single Copulative ; than. 



Conditional, 



If — then; since — therefore; because — therefore: though 
— yet; so — that; when — then; even, though — yet; 
when — even, then; notwithstanding — still; seeing — 
thence ; although — yet. 

Single; for, but, then, that, lest. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: CONJUNCTIONS. 83 

Disjunctive, 



( Either — or; 
E, < Whether — or. 
( Single ; except, 



save. 

256. Obs. Of the single Conjunctions, used where there is a logical, but 
not a grammatical connection : 

1. For introduces the reason by the same sentence, which, with gram- 
matical connection, would be introduced by if; " The rivers are swollen," 
for " the snows have melted." Here are two sentences, grammatically 
independent, but logically (which means by their sense) dependent. "If 
the snows melt," then "the rivers will be swollen." Here are two sen- 
tences, grammatically dependent, so as to form one compound sentence, 
and logically, (by sense) dependent, as before. The pupil will thus see 
that for usually introduces some affirmation as a reason. 

2. But introduces some negation as a reason; as, "what you say i3 
true, but I have no power." The same relations of thought could be put 
into grammatical connection by though, yet. "Though what you say be 
true, yet I have no power." 

3. The Conjunction, that, usually introduces the aim, the purpose of 
the action given by the verb. "I speak thai you may hear." The 
second verb depends on the first, as the effect on the cause. The sense 
could be nearly given by if, then ; as, " If I speak, then you ought to 
hear." 

4. The Conjunction " lest " implies the same idea of aim and purpose, 
but negatively, to prevent something; as, "I trod softly lest I should 
waken him." 

5. The Conjunction "than 11 implies degree ; as, "She hath put in more 
than they all." ""Wisdom is better than rubies." In such cases, two 
sentences and two verbs are implied, though not fully expressed. " She 
hath put in more than they all — have put in." " Wisdom is better than 
rubies — are." 

These observations will assist the learner in judging of Conjunctions by 
the sense, by the relations of thought, and not merely by a list of them 
in the grammar. Conjunctions are used so variously and interchange- 
ably, that the sense must be the guide. 

Use. 

257. Conjunctions are used for other parts of speech, and 
other parts of speech used for Conjunctions. 

e.g.: "I rest, then, upon this argument." Here, the word " then " is a 
conjunction. It expresses a conclusion from previous reasons. "He 
arrived then, and not before." Here, it is an adverb of time. "I »ub- 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mitted; for it was in vain to resist." Here, the word "for" is a Con- 
junction. It gives a reason. " I started for China." "He contended 
for victory." Here, it is a preposition. In the first of the following 
sentences, "since" is a Conjunction; in the second, a Preposition; and 
in the third, an Adverb. " Since we must part, let us do it peaceably." 
"I have not seen him since that time." "Your improvement in study 
began long since." 

Else is a Conjunction when we say : "Else, what shall they do." But 
else becomes an adjective, by qualifying a substantive, when we say : "I 
want something else." The sense is, " I want some other thing." 

258. Other parts of speech are used as Conjunctions. 
Verbs are so employed. 

This is the case with the words seeing, except, notwithstanding. They 
could be parsed as verbs governing the clause of the sentence, and also 
as Conjunctions, e.g. : "Except the Lord keep the city, the watchman 
waketh but in vain." 

259. Many Conjunctions are old verbs. The verbs once used as we 
now use seeing, except, notwithstanding, have lost some of their letters by 
length of time. Thus, if, is from an old verb, give. And, is from add. 
Since, is from seen. Yet, is from get. 

260. Conjunctions often unite sentences when they appear to unite 
only words, as in these examples: "Duty and interest call to virtue." 
"Happiness or misery awaits us." Each of these examples contains 
two sentences: "Duty calls to virtue." "Interest calls to virtue." 
" Happiness awaits us, or misery awaits us." 

So we may say: "A sea is larger than a lake." Logically, (by sense,) 
there are two sentences. 1. "A sea is large;" 2. "A lake is not so 
large." Grammatically, there are two sentences. A verb is understood 
after lake. "A sea is larger than a lake is." The two verbs make two 
simple sentences. 

261. "We have thus seen Conjunctions in their primary use between 
sentences. This use of them should be well understood, both for gram- 
matical, logical, and rhetorical purposes. Their primary is a basis, also, 
for their secondary office. 

Secondary Office of Conjunctions. 

262. Conjunctions, in their secondary office, are employed principally 
between, words \n a siniple sentence. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: CONJUNCTIONS. 85 

DivmcAs. 

263. Conjunctions, employed for words, are Copulative or 
Disjunctive. 

264. A Copulative Conjunction for words is one that de- 
notes addition, and between substantives gives a plural sense. 

e.g. : " Old Martin and his wife were a worthy couple." 

265. A Disjunctive Conjunction for words, is one that de- 
notes any one of several, and between substantives gives a 
Singular Sense. 

e.g. : " Either you or I must die." 

266. Obs. 1. — A Conjunction, Disjunctive between words, may be cop- 
ulative between sentences. Neither — nor, between words, will be dis- 
junctive, because giving a singular sense. The same, between sentences, 
would be copulative,- because the sentences are not dependent ; as, *' He 
neither spoke nor moved, "—" He did not speak, and he did not move." 
Between sentences, neither and nor merely express two independent ne- 
gations. 

Obs. 2.— From the nature of Conjunctions, it will be seen why these 
connect the same cases of substantives. Conjunctions unite. They 
unite words under some common grammatical relation. " I saw you as 
well as him." The words him and you are both governed by the verb 
saw, once expressed, and once understood. "There is none other that 
fighteth for us, but only Thou, God." Tlwu is in the Nominative Case 
to fightest, understood. 

To avoid common mistakes, supply the words which are understood 
in the sentence, which the Conjunctions imply. If Ellipsis be regarded, 
errors can be shunned. (242.) 

267. Conjunctions are parsed by stating the part of speech ; 
the class, as connecting words or sentences, and the rule of 
syntax ; as, "He and I are quite ready." 

And is a Conjunction. It connects the words he and I, making the 
verb plural (224) But it may be regarded as connecting, in sense, two 
sentences, viz. : he is quite ready, and I am quite ready. Conjunctions 
connect sentences, and may connect parts of one sentence. 16th Rule, 
(234.) 

The Rules of Syntax to be applied in parsing Conjunctions are, the 
16th and 17 th, viz. : 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

16th. — " Conjunctions connect sentences, and shew the relations be- 
tween them. They may also connect the parts of one sentence." 

17th. — " Conjunctions uniting two or more substantives by and give the 
plural, and by or, nor, the singular number, when agreement with the 
verb or pronoun is required." 



Sec. 3.— Adjectives. 

268. An Adjective is a part of speech which qualifies a 
substantive (182, 3.) 

Modifications. 

Comparison. 

269. Adjectives are modified by Comparison, so as to ex- 
press more and less, most and least. 

An Adjective may thus be in three conditions: 1. Without expressing 
comparison ; 2. Expressing more or less ; 3. Expressing most or least. 

These three states of the Adjective have been called degrees of com- 
parison. They are, rather, degrees for comparison. 

270. There are three degrees for comparison : the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

1. The positive presents the adjective as a quality, without 
comparison ; as, good, black, white. 

2. The comparative expresses more or less of the quality; 
as, letter, blacker, whiter. 

3. The superlative expresses most or least of the quality ; 
as, best, blackest, whitest. 

271. The Comparison is expressed by terminations after 
the adjective, or by adverbs before it. 

1. The regular terminations after it are er, for the compara- 
tive, and est, for the superlative ; as, great, great-er, great-es£. 

2. The adverbs placed before it are for increase, more and most; for 
diminution, less and least e.g. : Beautiful, more beautiful, most beauti- 
ful ; less beautiful, least beautiful. 



PARTS of speech: adjectiyes. 87 

3. Adverbs can be used with any adjective, whatever may be the 
number of its syllables. Terminations, to express comparison, are used 
with adjectives of one syllable, and sometimes with those of two; as, 
wise, wiser, ivisest ; lovely, lovelier. The distinction is for the sake of 
euphony. "IncompressibZer" and "incompressible^" would be difficult in 



4. Any adjective so used that it cannot have more and less, cannot be 
modified by degree. Such are those which express definite quantity, or 
the limitation of degree, on both sides; as, one, two, second, square, 
rectangular, parallel, immortal, infinite, total. 

272. Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, 
better, best; bad or ill; worse, worst; little, less, least; much, 
more, most ; many, more, most, 

273. The Comparison of adjectives illustrates a law of language which 
will appear more fullj under Etymology, but in this part of grammar 
will throw light on parsing. 

The meanings of all words can be reduced to a certain number of 
general heads, called categories (170.) Thus, the sense of most adjec- 
tives can be brought under the head of quality, and so adjectives are 
said to qualify ; that of many verbs, under the head of action ; that of 
interjections under the head of passion ; that of prepositions under re- 
lation; that of numbers under the head of quantity ; that of substantives 
under the same head which their name implies — that of substance. 

Some of these heads can include degrees, and some cannot. Definite 
quantity cannot admit degree. The number eight is just that, but not 
more nor less. And hence comes the rule just given, that adjectives, ex- 
pressing definite number, cannot receive degrees for comparison. The 
same is true of substantives. And so we have no degrees for compari- 
son, for nouns and pronouns. 

But Qualities do admit of degrees. If a thing is hot, it may be hotter 
than it was, and it may become the hottest of all things around it. 
Actions and Passions may admit of degrees. One may run more or less 
swiftly ; and feel grief or anger more or less deeply. 

As we make these degrees, as less and least, or more and most, we 
arrive at some word which lies between, and is called the cross-word, or 
contrary. Hot, less hot, least hot, and then cold. Wise, less ivise, least 
wise, and then foolish. Large, less large, least large, and then small. 
The following list extends the examples: 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Positive. Contrary. Positive. Contrary. 

Broad, narrow, artful, artless. 

Hard, soft, clever, dull. 

High, low, early, late. 

Light, dark, good, bad. 

Long, short, great, little. 

Quick, slow, warm, cool. 

Strong, weak, hot, cold. 
By applying to these words the degrees of more and most, less and 
least, the following order results : 

Contraries. 

Small. Large. 

Smallest, smaller, " less small, least small, " larger, largest. 
" " M least large, less large, " " " 

Cool. Warm. 

Coolest, cooler, " less cool, least cool, " warmer, warmest. 
" " " least warm, less warm, " u u 

1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 

As we pass from the left to the right, we go from the extreme of the 
negative to the extreme of the positive, through the contraries; as, from 
extreme smallness to extreme size. 

There are at least eight grades furnished by language for degrees of 
quality, without changing the two contrary words. 

If the language shall furnish other words, so as to give degrees for the 
contraries themselves, these grades may be extended. 

Thus, by applying cold and hot, which are words of higher degree than 
cool and warm, we can add three degrees more on each side, so that they 
will stand thus: 1, coldest; 2, colder; 3, cold; 4, coolest; 5, cooler; 
G, cool; 7, less cool, or least warm ; 8, least cool, or less warm ; 9, warm ; 
10, warmer; 11, warmest; 12, hot; 13, hotter; 14, hottest. 

These degrees could be still increased, if we should interpose the 
words chill and lukewarm, or add red-hot and white-hot. 

123 4 567 8 

Cold, cool, chill, lukewarm, warm, hot, red-hot, white-hot. 
The principle thus presented in language is of great practical value to 
its student, as teaching him how to use it correctly and efficiently, in 
conversation, writing, or public speaking. 

Qualities and Actions, in things and in men, present gradations, which 
he wants to express. Ho is to study his own language, and disco vei 
the words whL'h represent different degrees. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: ADJECTIVES. 89 

Use. 

274. Adjectives are sometimes used for other parts of speech, 
and others for adjectives. 

275. Adjectives are used as substantives. 

They are used as pronouns. They are then Pronominal Adjectives, 
which some grammarians call Adjective Pronouns. Of these, the prin- 
cipal are : 

1. Demonstrative. — They are: this, that, these, those, both. They 
have also the office of a definite article, since they select definitely from 
a class. These and those are plural. 

2. Distributive. — They are: each, every, either, neither. They select 
individuals, like the indefinite article. Either and neither, are, strictly, 
conjunctions passing into the office of adjectives, and as adjectives into 
that of pronouns. 

3. Indefinite. — Such are : all, few, any, none, such, whole, some, other, 
few, with several others. 

2. Adjectives are used as Nouns ; 

As, " Providence rewards the good and punishes (lie bad." The definite 
article is attached in such a case. 

"One's country should be loved." 

"Take care of the little ones." " They poured into the plain by hun- 
dreds and by thousands." "Others may command, but our duty is, to 
obey our superiors." In these cases the adjectives are made substantives 
in the plural. 

The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives: this, that, these, those, 
illustrate the fact that one word may perform the office of two or more 
parts of speech ; e. g. : these are the men ; these men came. In the first 
sentence, the word these is used as a substantive, and in the second, as 
an adjective. 

The fact that the adjectives this, and that, have plural forms, comes 
from the Gothic family, through the Saxon. 

276. Other parts of speech are used as Adjectives. 

1. The Verb is used as an Adjective, by a change in its ter- 
mination. 

It is then called a participle, and is to be considered under verbs. 
Thus, the verb to love forms the participles loving, loved. 

2. The Substantive is used as an Adjective; as, "An iron 
ship." 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Conjunction is used as an Adjective, and then, like 
other Adjectives, as a Substantive. 

As, "Either one of those four may go." "Either may be chosen." 
11 1 wish neither of them." 

Divisions. 

277. Adjectives, as divided by their sense, apart from the sentence, 
and by their derivation, do not strictly pertain to this part of grammar, 
but to Etymology. Their ordinary divisions will, however, be given for 
incidental benefit in parsing, and for assisting a clear conception of the 
sense. 

278. Adjectives are divided, according to sense, into Common and 
Numeral Adjectives. 

1. A Common Adjective expresses quality, simply ; as, good, bad, wise. 

2. A Numeral Adjective expresses quantity definitely, and therefore 
has no comparison ; as, one, two, three, four. 

Numeral Adjectives are cardinal,* as one, two, three; or ordinal, 
as first, second, third ; or multiplicative, as double, triple, three-fold. 

279. Adjectives are divided, according to derivation, into Nominal, 
Verbal, and Compound. 

1. A Nominal Adjective is one derived from a Noun. One derived 
from a proper name, is called a Proper Adjective ; as, European, Cice- 
ronean. 

2. A Verbal Adjective is one derived from a Verb; as, destroying, des- 
troyed, destructive, destructible. 

Yerbal Adjectives are Participial or Capacitating. 

(1.) A Participial Adjective expresses the action or passion of the 
verb simply ; as destroying, destroyed. The expression is usually made, 
by attaching as a termination to the verb, ing, for the action, and ed, for 
the passion ; as construct^, constructed 

(2.) A Capacitating Adjective expresses capacity for the action or pas- 
sion of the verb. By this is meant capacity to perform or receive the 
action, since passion, in language, means action received ; as, destructive, 
destructible. The expression is usually made by attaching as a termina- 
tion to the verb, ive, for the action, and ble, for the passion ; as construct- 
ive, construct-ible. Destructive means capable of destroy^; destruct- 
ive, capable of being destroyed 

* Cardinal numbers express the amount of units ; Ordinal, the order of a number. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: ARTICLES. 91 

(3.) A Compound Adjective is one made from two simple words ; as 
"Cloud-capt towers." " The rosy-fingered dawn." 

An Adjective is parsed by stating the part of speech, the 
class, the comparison, if any, the substantive qualified, and the 
rule of syntax. 

The Rule of Syntax to be applied is the 5th. Adjectives qualify sub- 
stantives. 

e. g. : "A good man leaveth an inheritance to his children's children." 

Good is an Adjective : in degree, positive ; and qualifies man as an 
epithet, according to Rule 5th. "Adjectives qualify substantives.' 7 

1. An Adjective is a part of speech which qualifies a substantive, 
(268; 182, 3.) This qualifies a substantive. Therefore, it is an Adjec- 
tive. 

2. The positive degree presents the Adjective without comparison, 
(270, 1.) Here is no comparison. Therefore, the degree is positive. 

3. Rules of Syntax are based on the relations of words in a sentence, 
as shown by the sense. Therefore, good qualifies man, and the 5th Rule 
of Syntax applies. Good is an epithet, not a predicate. 



Sec. 4. — Articles. 

282. Articles are Special Adjectives, used to limit the sig- 
nification of substantives to portions of their classes ; as, "A 
man," "TJie man," "The men." 

Divisions. 

Articles are divided into the Definite and Indefinite. 

283. The Definite Article is the, which specifies an indi- 
vidual, or a portion within a class; as, "The man." "The 
men." "The apples on the tree." 

284. The Indefinite Article is an, or a, which denotes, with- 
out specifying, one in a class; as, "A man." "An apple." 

The n is used for sound before a, e, i, o, and silent h ; as, "iw old man." 
"An hour." 

285. It should be observed that Articles imply some class to which 
they apply — some whole, divisible into parts. Their use always presents 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the fundamental law of language, that words exist in classes. The 
class, or the whole to which they apply, may be represented by a circle. 
If we say "all men," we include the whole circle. If we use the Article 
the, with the plural, and say "the men," it is as if we had drawn a straight 
line through the circle, dividing it into parts. If we use the same Arti- 
cle with the singular, and say "the man," it is as if we selected one 
point in the circle. If we use the Indefinite Article, and say " a man," 
it is as if the surface within the circle were covered with points, any one 
of which might be taken — and but one. 

This illustration of Articles can be easily drawn on the paper or 
black-board. Their true nature can thus be imprinted on the mind. 



Use. 

286. Articles are sometimes used for other parts of speech, 
and other parts of speech for the office of articles. 

(1.) They are sometimes used as an adverb, with an adjective, or ad- 
verb; as, " He was the mightiest among the champions." "I chose it 
the rather " "A. few amber clouds floated in the sky of evening." "A 
few days" "A great many sheep." 

The parsing will depend, according to the canons, on the view taken 
of the article. If in its office, normally, it must turn the word or phrase 
to which it is attached into a substantive, or suppose a word understood ; 
as, "A few of amber clouds floated." U A great many of sheep." "He 
was the mightiest champion among the champions." If the Article be 
regarded as used abnormally, (beyond its office,) it becomes an adverb, 
because it modifies an adjective or adverb. 

The Article assists the comparison; as, "The mightiest." "A mightier." 
" The farther." "The farthest." 

(2.) Articles are sometimes used as conjunctions; as, "The higher we 
ascended, the wider was our prospect." This is equivalent to "As we 
ascended higher, our prospect became wider." The effect of the Article 
in this compound sentence is to point out definitely the general sense in 
the two sentences, and to refer them to each other as do conjunctions. 

287. Other parts of speech are used as Articles. 

(1.) The Adjectives, which are called Demonstratives, viz. : this, that, 
these, those, have the general sense of the Definite Article, by pointing 
out portions of a class; as, " The men whom I see ;"—" Those men whom 
I see." 



PARTS OF SPEECH: ADVERBS. 93 

(2.) The Distributives, meaning one of several, have the effect of the 
Indefinite Article; as, "So?ne vessel may heave in sight ;"— ■" A vessel 
may heave in sight." 

288. Articles are parsed, by stating the part of speech ; the class ; 
the word limited ; and tne Rule of Syntax. 

e. g. : In the words, A man. "a" is an Article, indefinite, limiting the 
Substantive, man, to a portion of the class, men. We apply the 6th 
Rule from the Syntax, "Articles reduce their substantives from a general 
to a particular signification.' ' 



Sec. 5. — Adverbs, 

289. An Adverb is a part of speech which modifies verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "The stream did beat vehe- 
mently. 11 

Divisions. 

290. Adverbs are divided, according to their derivation, 
into Derivative and Primitive. 

291. A Derivative Adverb is one formed from an adjective, 
verb, or other adverb, with the termination ly to express man- 
ner, or that of ward to express direction ; as, constructively, 
eastward, eastwardly. 

292. A Primitive Adverb is one not derived from another 
word, but, by itself, expressive of time, place, degree,, or man- 
ner; as, now, here, much, yes, no. 

Comparison. 

293. Adverbs may express degree, like adjectives. 

(1.) A few do it by termination, and variation : some regu- 
larly, and some irregularly. 

Regularly. — Soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; long, long- 
er, longest. 

Irregularly. — Well, better, best ; badly, or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, 
least ; much, more, most ; far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2.) Other Adverbs express degree by taking before them 
more, and most ; as, productively, more productively, most pro- 
ductively. 

Use. 

294. Adverbs are used for other parts of speech, and they 
for adverbs. 

(1.) Adverbs are used for Conjunctions, and are then called Conjunc- 
tive Adverbs ; as, " When the ear heard me, then it blessed me." 

Conjunctions are used for Adverbs; as, "Wherefore did you tell him?" 
=*"Why did you tell him?" 

(2.) Adverbs are used for Adjectives, and Adjectives for Adverbs; as, 
" He is now a well man." Here, well is an Adjective, because it qualifies 
a substantive. " The ship sails well" Here, it is an Adverb, because 
it modifies a verb. " That is a long pole." Long is an Adjective, be- 
cause it qualifies pole. " He traveled long." Long is an Adverb, because 
it modifies the verb. 

(3.) Adverbs are used for Prepositions, as well as Prepositions for Ad- 
verbs. " I was sad till you came." Here, till is an Adverb and Con- 
junction. " I was sad till your arrival." Here it is a Preposition. 

(4.) Prepositions are used as Adverbs. This is the case, when a Pre- 
position in a sentence has no word which it governs, (that is, no regimen.) 
" The sun had gone down." 

Lists and classes of Adverbs will be found in the Appendix. 

295. An Adverb is parsed by stating, the part of speech; the class; 
the comparison, if any, and the Rule of Syntax. 

" The steamer moves rapidly." 

Rapidly is an Adverb, derivative, formed by adding ly, modifying the 
verb moves. The Rule of Syntax is the 1th. "Adverbs modify verbs, 
adjectives, and ocher adverbs." 



Sec. 6. — Preposition. 

296 A Proposition is a part of speech which connects sub- 
stantives, as objects, to the verb, by relation, or with the verb 
to some other word in the sentence ; as, "He went from Paris 
to a house in London." 



PARTS OF SPEECH: PREPOSITIONS. 95 

297. The knowledge of Prepositions assists the understanding of 
one's own, and the acquisition of foreign languages. 

Prepositions enter into sentences to unite words, so that the under- 
standing of them is essential for parsing. Prepositions are used exten- 
sively for making derived words. Many verbs are compounded of a 
primitive verb and a preposition; as, up-hold, over-look, understand. 
The knowledge of them assists the understanding of the force of words. 

Divisions. 

298. Prepositions, like other words, have their first mean- 
ing from sensible objects. From sensible objects, they are 
transferred to the mind and feelings. 

" The tree is above the ground." Here the Preposition gives its first 
meaning among sensible objects. "He is above any mean action." 
Here the Preposition has its transferred meaning for the mind. 

It is the first sense of Prepositions which explains all the 
transferred significations. 

299. 1. The first sense of Prepositions is that of Motion 
and Position in Place. 2. A few express relations of Time. 

(1.) Prepositions of Place. 

The simplest view of Prepositions of Place, is to refer them to the 
speaker ; 1, as at rest; 2, as moving; 3, as related to some enclosure. In 
the following list, R, means rest ; M, motion. 

1. Prepositions Expressing- the Positions of a Point 
Referred to the Speaker: 
R. M. R. 

Above, up, on, 

Below, down, upon, 

Under, 
Beneath, 
Underneath, 
Before, 
Behind, 
After, 
With, 
"Without, 
Off. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Prepositions Referring the Speaker to some Enclosure. — 
This includes the idea of enclosing and enclosed. 

Enclosing. Around, about. 

Enclosed, m. into ; r. in, within ; m. out, out of; R. without, be- 
yond, off. 

3. Prepositions Applicable to the Speaker as Moving; referred- 

1. To the points of departure and arrival: from; for; towards; 
to, unto, at. 

2. To a point passed; 
Past. 

3. To a fixed line passed ; 
Along; beside; by. 

4. To the space passed ; 

Between; betwixt; among; amid; about; over; across; 
through; throughout. 

5. To another body moving ; 

Against; athwart; overthwart; across; 

(2.) Prepositions of Time. 

Future : till, until. 
Past : since. 
Present: during. 

Of implies division : it is from off, and signifies a separation of some 
whole into its parts; as, "The first hour of the day." 

300. The second and third of the divisions of prepositions of space 
can be illustrated by the following sentences. They can be exercises for 
parsing. In some instances the prepositions become adverbs. 

" We walked around the circular tower, and about the grounds. We 
then went into it, and when within (Ad.), the dampness struck through 
every limb. I came out of it, and when without (Ad.), I ran some distance 
beyond the gate." 

" We then started from the tower for the boat, which we directed 
towards the north, for home. We got to the first point in the lake, easily; 
and at sunset, arrived at home." 

" But between that point and our destination, and among the isJands, 
we were driven about, and over the lake, and across shallow places, and 
through a wide reach of water, by a violent wind that came against us, 
and struck athwart our craft ; its course being directly across our own." 

11 We had been coasting along the beautiful shore and beside the line 
of the road, keeping by the banks, when, just as we floated past the 
point, the storm burst." 



PARTS OF SPEECH: PREPOSITIONS. 97 

Use. 

301. Prepositions are used for other parts of speech, and 
they for Prepositions. 

(1.) They are used as Conjunctions; as, u After their prisons were 
thrown open, there was great rejoicing." "Before I die, I wish to speak.' 1 
Here, by the second canon, the Preposition is an Adverb. 

(2.) They are used as Adverbs; as, "'They had their reward soon 
after." "He died not long before." "He dwells above." Here, by the 
second canon, the name Adverb must be given to the Prepositions. 

Apply the first canon by inserting the substantives, time and place, 
and they become Prepositions; as, "After the time when the prisons are 
thrown open." 

(3.) They are used as prefixes to the verb, which are separated from 
it ; as, "To cast up accounts, "=»" to wp-cast accounts." 

302. Other parts of speech, (as verbs in the form of participles,) are 
used as Prepositions, e.g. : Concerning, bating, excepting, except, not- 
withstanding, pending, regarding, respecting, touching. 

In this way, many words, now Prepositions, were, formerly, some 
other part of speech. Some are from old adjectives ; as, after, from aft ; 
along, from long; amid, from mid; around, from round; before, from 
fore; behind, from hind; below, from loiv ; underneath, beneath, tender, 
from nether ; between, betwixt, from tiuain ; beyond, from yon ; down, from 
dun, low, (a word still retained, in the name Dimes, for low hills of mov- 
able sand on the coast of England, and other countries.) 

Some are from nouns ; as, across, from cross ; beside, and besides, from 
side; from, from a word meaning beginning, fram ; through, from the same 
primitive as that for door. 

Some are from old verbs; as, athwart, from thwart; past, from passed; 
since, from see, seen; worth, from a Saxon verb, meaning, to become; viz.: 
weorthan; like German, werden. 

The law of language is thus illustrated; that one part of speech can 
perform the office of another. 

303. A preposition is parsed by stating the part of speech ; the sub- 
stantive, which is its object ; and the rule of syntax. The relations need 
not always be stated, e. g.; "I beheld the light of the sun." " Of" is 
a preposition, because it has a substantive for its object, and is not 
a verb. It governs "sun" in the objective case. Rule 9. — "A preposi- 
tion governs substantives, which are its objects, in the objective case." 

If the relations are required, the immediate relation is to "light;" the 
remote, to the verb "beheld." 



98 english geammae. 

Sec. 7. — Substantives. 

304. A Substantive is any form of language, which is, or 
may be, subject to the assertion of a verb. 



305. The general term, substantive, includes substantives 
representing, and represented. Those representing, are called 
Pronouns; those represented, are, principally, Nouns; but 
they may be infinitives, participles, clauses of sentences, or any 
word or phrase used substantively. 

Substantives therefore include, 1, Pronouns ; 2, Nouns ; 3, Forms of 

LANGUAGE WHICH CAN BE REPRESENTED BY A PRONOUN. 



Sec. ?. (1.)— Pronouns. 

306. A Pronoun is a substantive, used as a substitute for 
another substantive which it represents, in the same, or in a 
second simple sentence. 

The Substantive represented is usually named the Antecedent. 

307. Pronouns come under the same law with other parts 
of speech. They may be used for others, and others for them. 

308. The simplest division of Pronouns is into two classes, 
the personal and the relative. 

Personal Pronouns. 

309. Personal Pronouns are those which represent, by their 
form, the first, second, and third of the grammatical persons. 

The Personal Pronouns are, /, thou, he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, 
you, (or ye,) and they. 

310. They admit, like other substantives, of person, number, gender, 
and case. 



PARTS OF SPEECH.* PRONOUNS. 



99 



>- Singular. 
Plural. 



(1.) The persons of pronouns are three in each of the numbers, 
viz.: 

I, is the first person 

Thou, is the second person 

He, she, or it, is the third person 

We, is the first person 

Ye or you, is the second person 

They, is the third person 

(2.) The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two, 

the singular and the plural ; as, I, thou, he ; we, ye, they. 
(3.) Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the 

pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is feminine ; it is 

neuter. 
(4.) Tronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and 

the objective. 
The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different 

from that of the nominative, or the possessive case. 
(5.) The personal pronouns are thus declined : 



Person. 


Case. 


Singul; 


ar. 


Plural. 


First 


Nom. 


I 




We 




Possess. 


My or mine 


Our or ours 




Obj. 


Me 




Us 


Second 


Nom. 


Thou 




Ye or you 




Possess. 


Thy or 


thine 


Your or yours 




Obj. 


Thee 




You 


Third 


Nom. 


He 




They 


Mas 


Possess. 


His 




Theirs or their 




Obj. 


Him 




Them 


Third 


Nom. 


She 




They 


fern 


Possess. 


Her or 


1 hers 


Their or theirs 




Obj. 


Her 




Them 


Third 


Nom. 


It 




They 


Neuter 


Possess. 


Its 




Theirs or their 




Obj. 


It 




Them 



311. The Personal Pronouns are united with the word self, and selves, 
to give emphatic expression, or to form reciprocals; as, "He himself 
came." "He loves himself 11 They are both in the plural and singular; 
as, myself ourselves ; thyself yourselves. There is no difficulty in deter- 
mining the person, number, and gender, in parsing; but in fixing the 
case, regard must be had to the sense, and not to the form of the word. 
Thus, in the first example, " himself" is nominative to the verb "came," 
because ltls the subject of that verb ; and in the second, it is in the ob* 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



jective, after the verb "loves," because the object of that verb. Yet, 
its form is that of the objective, "him," in both cases. 

These may be named reciprocal personal pronouns, or personal pronouns 
in reciprocal forms. The reciprocals are, myself, thyself, himself herself 
itself yourself (when a single person is addressed, as you)) and in the 
plural, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 

312. The Personal Pronouns are also united with the adjective, own, 
for emphatic expression ; as, my own, thy own, thine own. 

313. Personal Pronouns, in the possessive case, perform the - 
office of adjectives; as, "My book." "This book is mine." 

314. Employed as adjectives, they distinguish the two forms 
of the possessive, using one for the epithet, and the other for 
the predicate. As, for the epithet, "This is my book;" for 
the predicate, "This book is mine" 

This mode of using them is drawn from the Gothic family of languages. 





Example: 








Epithet. 






Predicate. 


This is my house. 




This house 


is mine. 


" " thy " 




<< 


a 


" thine. 


" " her " 




a 


tt 


" hers. 


u « our u 




tt 


it 


" ours* 


" " your M 




it 


it 


" yours. 


" "their " 




tl 


u 


" theirs. 



Mine, and thine, as epithets, were formerly used for euphony before a, 
e, i, o, u, at the beginning of the next word; as, "Mine iniquities" 
"Tfiine own." "Mine own."* 

315. Having passed into the office of adjectives, the predicate form is 
then used after a preposition, so as to make a substantive, by the first 
canon. 

This is a house of mine. 
" " " " " thine. 
" " " " " hers, ours, yours, theirs. 

If the preposition of be here used normally in its office, then, mine, 
thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are used as substantives. (185, 4, Test.) 
(1st Canon, 19?.) 

♦ This is in analogy with "n" in the indefinite article. 



PAKTS OF SPEECn: RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 101 

If of be here used abnormally, then it coalesces with wime, as the 
equivalent of the possessive. (210, 3.) Of mine, is then a pronoun in 
the possessive, belonging to house. (2d Canon, 198.) 

316. These Pronouns in the possessive case are often called 
Possessive Pronouns. 

SIT. A Personal Pronoun is parsed by stating the part of speech; the 
person; the number; the gender (if required) ; the case; and the re- 
quired rule of syntax, according as the case is nominative, possessive, or 
objective, e. g.: "I read." "I" is a pronoun, because it is a substantive 
representing (306). It is a personal pronoun, because representing the 
person speaking (309). It is of the first person, and singular number, both 
because it represents one person speaking, and because, in the table of 
declension (310, 5), it is so given. It is in the nominative case, b}^ its 
sense, since it is the subject of the verb "read," and by its form, as given 
in the table of declension (310, 5). The rule of syntax is the 1st. u Tho 
Bubject of a finite verb is in the nominative case." 

318. Personal Pronouns come under the rules for adjectives, in their 
use in the possessive, as adjectives; and under the rules for substantives, 
when used as substantives. 

Relative Pronouns. 

319. A Relative Pronoun is one which represents, and re- 
lates to a substantive in a second simple sentence, expressed 
or implied. 

The Relative Pronouns* axe- who, which^.^nd what 

Divisions, 

320. Who, which, and what, are Declarative, or Interrogative. 
When Declarative, the two simple sentences, with their 

verbs, are expressed; as, "The man is happy, who lives vir- 
tuously." 

When Interrogative, one sentence is implied, because a 
question is asked ; as, " Who is he ?" " Which will you have ?V 
11 What did you say?" 

Relatives Declarative, may be simply called Relatives ; and Relatives 
Interrogative, simply Interrogative Pronouns. 

321. Interrogative Pronouns are thus, in English, merely 
relative pronouns employed in asking a question. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Relatives, Declarative. 

322. The Relative Pronouns are who, which, and what 
That, and as, are other parts of speech employed as Relatives. 

323. Who is applied to rational beings; which, in modern 
usage, to things, and animals. Formerly, which was used for 
persons; as, "Our Father, which art in heaven." 

324. Who and which are of both numbers, and are thus de- 
clined : 

Singular and Plural. 

Mm. Who. Which. 

Poss. Whose. Whose. 

Obj. Whom. Which. 

325. The word that is often used as a relative, to prevent the too fre» 
quent repetition of who and which. It is applied both to persons and 
things; as, "Ho that acts bravely, deserves praise." "Patience is a quali- 
ty that highly adorns its possessor." 

That, is, originally, a demonstrative adjective; as, "I know that man." 
It passes into the office of a conjunction; as, "You should study, that 
you may be wise and good." It then passes into the office of a relative 
pronoun; as, "The things that you see shall perish." As an ad- 
jective, that is used to point out a substantive definitely. As a conjunc- 
tion, that unites two sentences, and points out one, definitely. As a 
relative, that unites two sentences, and points back to an antecedent, 
definitely, e.g.: Adjective; "Go to that man." Conjunction; "You 
should go, that you may see the man," Relative; "Go to the man that 
you see there." Its first meaning, when used normally, may be traced 
when it is used abnormally. It always points out definitely. 

326. The conjunction, as, is also used as a relative; e. g. : "The Lord 
added to the Church daily, such as should be saved." "Lend him such 
books as he wants." In one of these sentences, as is the subject of the 
verb should be saved, and in the other, the object of the verb wants. As 
a conjunction, as expresses equality, or correspondence, and connects one 
sentence with another. As a relative, it does the same, and adds thereto, 
the office of a pronoun. 

Divisions. 

327. A relative may be Full, or Contracted. 
1. It is Full, when the antecedent and relative are separated; 
as, " I saw him whom I wanted." 



PARTS OF SPEECH: PRONOUNS. 103 

2. It is Contracted, when the relative includes the antece- 
dent; as, "I saw whom I wanted." "We speak that we do 
know." 

328. The relative, what, is always contracted. It is equivalent to that, 
or those which (the thing or things which). It must be parsed, by calling 
it a contracted relative, and then stating the antecedent and relative, 
which are to be parsed, separately, e. g. : "These are what I wanted." 
»" These are the things which I wanted." 

329. "Whenever any other relative is contracted, the parsing must sup- 
ply the antecedent which is included in the relative, by the sense ; as, 
"I saw whom I wanted. "=" I saw him whom I wanted." "We speak 
that we do know."= u We speak that which we do know." 

330. The addition to any relative of soever, or so, as whoso, ichosoever, 
whichsoever, whatsoever, has no effect on their parsing, though it has on 
the sense of the word, apart from the sentence. It makes the idea more 
general. The formation of compound words belongs to the other part 
of Grammar, which considers words, apart from the sentence. Whoever, 
whosoever, and whomsoever; whichever, and whichsoever; whatever, and 
whatsoever, are to be parsed like the relatives, which, and what, having 
the termination of compound words. 

Relatives, Interrogative. 

331. Interrogative Pronouns are the relatives, who, which, 
and what, employed in asking a question. WJiether, was for- 
merly employed for a question between two things; " Whether 
of these two?" 

332. Who, is used for persons (rational beings) ; which, and what, for 
persons, and things. 

333. Which, and what, are sometimes used as adjectives; as, "Which 
man of those two did you mean?" "Which pen will you have?" "What 
things did he say?" 

A common fault, in not giving the objective, whom, properly, should 
be avoided; as, "Whom did you see?" not " Who did you see?" 

334. Interrogates are to be parsed, by stating the person, gender, 
number, and case, and applying the rule of syntax. 

335. Special Observations. 

What is, etymologically, (that is, by derivation) a contraction of 
two words into one. The same fact is seen in many English words, aa 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

well as in words in other languages. The two words, from which it ia 
contracted, are which and thing; w, and h, represent one, and t, the 
other. 

Of interrogatives, who is used for persons ; which, and what, for persons, 
and things. 

As applied to persons, the three interrogatives (who, which, and ivhat) 
ascend from the individual, to some subdivision ; and from that, to the 
class to which the substantive belongs. "Who is that? Mr. Smith. 
Which Mr. Smith ? The one who called to see you. What is Mr. Smith? 
He is a doctor.'' The question is, to what class does Mr. Smith belong. 

As applied to things, what makes its primitive meaning felt. " What is 
that in the fog? It is a skiff. What is a skiff? A light boat without a 
keel." The questions imply which thing. 

When what is used as a relative, its primitive meanings appear more 
fully. The constituents appear only in reverse order to that which they 
have in the interrogative ; e. g. ; Relative ; " This is what I want."=» 
" This is the thing which I want." Interrogative ; " What do I Vvant."=» 
11 Which thing do I want." When used relatively, one of the constituents 
becomes antecedent, and one relative. 

336. Relatives are parsed, by stating the part of speech, the antece- 
dent (with its person, gender, number), the case, and the rule of syntax. 

The parsing of relative pronouns is usually difficult for learners in 
grammar. By taking a right course, the difficulty may be removed, ac- 
cording to the following directions: 

1. Remember that every relative supposes two verbs, and therefore 
two sentences. Look these out in the first place, and determine distinctly 
the verb in each sentence, with its character as transitive or intransitive, 
and with the prepositions, if any, which are related to it. Make a logi- 
cal analysis of the sentences. 

2. Remember that every relative implies two parts: the antecedent, 
and the relative. Each of these belongs to its own sentence. Each is a 
subject, or object, in its own sentence. Each is to be parsed as a sub- 
stantive in its own sentence. Each is in the nominative, possessive, or 
objective case in its own sentence. 

3. In parsing the contracted relative, what, the same rule is to be ap • 
plied, but without reference to the possessive case. 

4. What, may present its constituents in four conditions in the two sen- 
tences. 1, nominative in both ; 2, objective in both ; 3, nominative in 
the first, and objective in the second ; 4, objective in the first, and nom- 
inative in the second. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: NOUNS. 105 



It may fee thus analyzed : 

( 1. Antecedent, \ 1. That, or those; the thing, or things. 
What:] \ 

( 2. Relative, j 2. Which. 

Antec. Pel. 

(1. Nom. Nom. -j This is what came.— | This , is f ie *** ' 
( ( which came. 

2. Nom, Obj. \ This is what I saw.= j ™ 3 is the h ff .f3 / 
J I (I saw which. 

3. Obj. Nom. jl saw what cam,.- J * {&*£*> 
U-Obj. Obj. ]lknowwhat y oudid.-j^-f^; 



Sec. T. — 2 » Nouns. 

337. A Noun is a substantive giving a name to any object 
known to us, through the senses, or the mind. 

These objects are without us, within us, or in speech. Those without, 
are persons, and things ; those within, thoughts ; those in speech, words. 

The names of persons, things (including animals), thoughts, words, are 
therefore, nouns ; as, Hannibal, man ; Carthage, city ; Bucephalus, horse ; 
Memory, thought ; Participle, Verb, word. All these are names, and con- 
sequently, nouns. 

Divisions. 

338. Nouns are Proper, or Common. 

1. A Proper noun is the name of an individual in a class; 
as, Hannibal, Carthage, Bucephalus. 

2. A Common Noun is the name of a class, which includes 
individuals; as, warrior, man, city, horse, tree. 

Modifications. 

339. The modifications of Nouns are four: those of Person, 
Number, Gender, and Case. 

(a.) Person. 

340. The Persons of Nouns depend on the manner in which 
they are used in the sentence. They are mostly of the third 
person, because usually spoken of; as, "London is a great city." 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They may be of the first, or second person, because they 
may represent persons, or things, as speaking, or as spoken to ; 

e. g.: "ij Napoleon, emperor, and king, ordain, and decree." "How art 
thou fallen from heaven, Lucifer, son of the morning." 

Napoleon, emperor, and king, are in the first person, in the one exam- 
ple ; in the other, Lucifer, and son, are in the second person. 

341. To express person, in English, Nouns have no difference in their 
form. The person must, therefore, be determined by the sense. 

(o.) Number. 

342. The plural number of Nouns, is formed regularly, (that 
is to say, by the general and modern usage) by adding s 7 or 
es, to the singular ; as, tree, trees ; bunch, bunches. 

343. Irregular formations of the plural depend on the lan- 
guage from which a word is derived. 

1. In words derived from the Gothic family, through the Saxon, the 
plural is often made by a change of the vowel, (a, e, i, o, or u,) and some- 
times by adding en to the singular. These are old forms, which still ap- 
pear in such words as man, men ; foot, feet ; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; 
mouse, mice; louse, lice; woman, women.* These words shew the 
change of vowels. The addition of en is seen in ox, oxen; child, chil~ 
dren. 

2. In words derived from the Greco-Latin family, the plurals used in 
that family are often retained in English. 

Aa a general rule, 

Sin. Plu. 

Latin Nouns in um, take a ; as, datww, data. 

" " " is, " es; as, Ellipse, Ellipses. 

" M " a, " AE ; as, nebula, nebulae. 

Greek " " on, " a; as, phenomenon, phenomena. 

" " " is, " ides; as, ephemera, ephemerioes. 

11 " " A, " ata; as, miasma, miasmata. 

By looking down one column, the plural formations in this family can 
be seen. They end with a vowel, or with s. Those with a vowel, are 
a, ae, ata. Those with s are es, ides. 8 is the same letter which is used 
for regular English plurals. 

*A principle is here exhibited in language which will be more fully illustrated in 
derivation. It is, that a change or contrast in sense between two words is often ex- 
pressed by change or contrast in the vowels, while the consonants remain unaltered. 



PARTS OF speech: nouns. 



107 



By looking down the other column, it will be seen that the termina- 
tions in the singular, which are to be remembered, are quite similar in 
the Latin and Greek. They are, um, is, a, for Latin ; on, is, a, for Greek. 

They can thus be easily fixed in the memory, if not previously ac- 
quired. 

3. In words derived from the Shemitic family, through the Hebrew, 
the plural is formed in im ; as, cherub, cherubara; seraph, seraphim. 
Additional details will be found in the Appendix. 

344. Some Nouns are used only in the singular, and some only in the 
plural ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride ; bellows, scissors, lungs, riches. 
This use results from the nature of the things represented. 

345. Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine. 

346. Some Nouns are plural in form, but in sense singular. They are 
shown to be singular in sense, by taking, through usage, a verb in the 
singular. 

347. Some Nouns are singular in form, but plural in sense. Such are 
nouns of multitude. 

348. Nouns of multitude may be used in the singular or plural, ac- 
cording to the intention of the speaker. If he intend to turn attention 
on the individuals composing the mass, he may use a verb in the plural ; 
but if on the mass, as a unit — a verb in the singular. 

349. Copulative Conjunctions for words placed among nouns, require 
a verb in the plural, as already stated ; and Disjunctive Conjunctions for 
words, a verb in the singular. 

(c.) Gender. 

350. Nouns are used in English to represent one of the 
two sexes, either or neither. 

Every Noun, therefore, is in one of the grammatical genders. 

351. The language has three methods of distinguishing the feminine 
from the masculine. 

1. By different words; as, 



Male. 


Female, 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


Maid 


Husband 


Wife 


Boar 


Sow 


King 


Queen 


Boy 


Girl 


Lad 


Lass 


Brother 


Sister 


Lord 


Lady 


Buck 


Doe 


Man 


Woman 


Bull 


Cow 


Master 


Mistress 



108 





ENGLISH 


GRAMMAR, 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bullock or ) 
Steer J 


Heifer 


Milter 


Spawner 


Nephew 


Niece 


Cock 


Hen 


Earn 


Ewe 


Dog 
Drake 


Bitch 
Duck 


Singer 


( Songstres 
I or Singer 


Earl 


Countess 


Sloven 


Slut 


Father 


Mother 


Son 


Daughter 


Friar 


Nun 


Stag 


Hind 


Gander 


Goose 


Uncle 


Aunt 


Hart 


Eoe 


Wizard 


Witch 


Horse 


Mare 







2. By a difference of termination ; as, 



Abbot 


Abbess 


Landgrave 


Landgravine 


Actor 


Actress 


Lion 


Lioness 


Administrator 


Administratrix 


: Marquis 


Marchioness 


Adulterer 


Adultress 


Master 


Mistress 


Ambassador 


Ambassadress 


Mayor 


Mayoress 


Arbiter 


Arbitress 


Patron 


Patroness 


Baron 


Baroness 


Peer 


Peeress 


Bridegroom 


Bride 


Poet 


Poetess 


Benefactor 


Benefactress 


Priest 


Priestess 


Caterer 


Cateress 


Prince 


Princess 


Chanter 


Chantress 


Prior 


Prioress 


Conductor 


Conductress 


Prophet 


Prophetess 


Count 


Countess 


Protector 


Protectress 


Deacon 


Deaconess 


Shepherd 


Shepherdess 


Duke 


Duchess 


Songster 


Songstress 


Elector 


Electress 


Sorcerer 


Sorceress 


Emperor 


Empress 


Sultan 


I Sultaness, 
( Sultana 


Enchanter 


Enchantress 


Executor 


Executrix 


Tiger 


Tigress 


Governor 


Governess 


Traitor 


Traitress 


Heir 


Heiress 


Tutor 


Tutoress 


Hero 


Heroine 


Viscount 


Viscountess 


Hunter 


Huntress 


Votary 


Votaress 


Host 


Hostess 


Widower 


Widow 


Jew 


Jewess 







3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective being prefixed; as, 



A cock-sparrow 
A man-servant 
A he-goat 
A he-bear 
A male-child 
Male descendants 



A hen-sparrow 
A maid-servant 
A she-goat 
A she-bear 
A female child 
Eemale descendants 



PARTS OF SPEECH! NOUNS. 



109 



(d.) Case. 

352. Nouns have three dependent cases, (the Nominative, 
Possessive, Objective.) and one Independent Case. 

353. In the dependent cases, the Noun is subject or object. 
Of these : 

In the Nominative, the Noun is the subject of a verb. 

" Objective, " is the object of a transitive verb or 

preposition. 

" Possessive, " is the object of relation to another sub- 

stantive. 

" Independent Case, the Noun is neither subject nor object, but 
independent of grammatical construction. 

354. Nouns are declined in the following manner in English : 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative, 


A father, 


Fathers, 


Possessive, 


A father's, 


Fathers', 


Objective, 


A father, 


Fathers, 


Independent, 


father, 


Fathers, 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative, 


The child, 


The children, 


Possessive, 


The child's, 


The children's, 


Objective, 


The child, 


The children, 


Independent, 


child, or 


0, the children, 




the child. 


0, children. 



355. 1. It will be seen, by observation, that the form of the Noun is 
not varied, except for the possessive case. 

2. For the possessive, an apostrophe, with the letter s coming after it, 
is added to the nominative. 

3. When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the apostro- 
phe retained ; as, " My fathers' fathers." 

4. Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in s, or in the same 
sound, a like omission is made; as, "For righteousness' sake;" "For 
conscience' sake" 

356. The form of the possessive sometimes seems to be irregularly 
used, as in these expressions: "A book of my brother's was lost;" "A 
6tatue of the emperor's was there;" "A servant of the queen's;" "A 
soldier of the king's." 

This use is either ungrammatical or grammatical. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If ungrammatical, the expression should be : "A statue of the em- 
peror was there." Emperor is, then, in the objective case, and objec- 
tive form. There is not even the appearance of irregularity. 

It cannot, however, be considered ungrammatical, since it is sanctioned 
by good usage, and usage is a law for language. 

Being, then, grammatical, we apply the 1st canon, and the right view 
is immediately evident. 

The preposition of is normally used. It must then have an object. 
That object must be in the Objective Case. Either Emperor's is the ob- 
ject, or some other word, as person, understood. If the word be un- 
derstood, the sense will be, "A statue of the emperor's person was there." 
Thus, by Ellipsis, also, irregularity is removed. 

If Emperor's be the object, it is in the Objective Case. The form, 
however, is Possessive. Emperor's, then, is an Objective Case, in Pos- 
sessive form. It presents, simply, an application of the law of substitu- 
tion, which runs through language. 

We cannot apply the 2d canon, since there is no other part of speech 
for which of can be used. We may throw it out, as redundant, and 
the reading will be, "A statue, the Emperor's, was there." 

This throwing of out, as no part of speech here, is, however, the same 
as declaring the phrase ungrammatical, when it is, really, sanctioned by 
usage. 

351. Nouns are parsed by stating the part of speech, the modifica- 
tions, (person, gender, number, case,) and the Rule of Syntax, which 
applies according as they are subjects or objects. 

The Rules of Syntax to be applied, are the 1st, 3d, 4th, 8th, 9th, 14th, 
lTth, and 19th. 

Use. 

358. "Words, whose common office is that of a Noun, are 
used for other parts of speech, and they for Nouns. 

Thus, they are used for Adjectives; as, "the iron ship;" "the 
iron Duke." 

They are used as Verbs; as, "Iron those clothes before two o'clock. 

359. Words commonly employed in the office or other parts of speech 
are used as nouns. This will bo seen under the third division of sub- 
stantives. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: SUBSTANTIVE FORMS. 11J 



Sec. 1. — 3, Forms of Language which can be represented 
by a Pronoun. 

3 GO. 1. Other, another, and one, which are Adjectives, because usually 
employed in that office, perform the offlfce of substantives, and in doing 
so, take the same marks with nouns, of number, and case ; as, 





Sing. 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


Plural 


Nom. : 


Other, 


others, 


another, 


one, 


ones, 


Poss. : 


Other's 


others', 


another's, 


one's, 


ones,' 


Obj.: 


Other, 


others, 


another, 


one, 


ones. 



Using these words as Adjectives, we say "other books;" "another 
book;" "one book." But as substantives, they come under the same 
formations with nouns. "The other came;" "I saw that other ;" 
"Others came;" "Think of others." "Another is present;" "This right 
is another's;" "I expect another;" "One's own right;" "Take care of 
the little ones;" "The little ones' bread." 

The formation is thus seen to be in accordance with analogy, which is 
a principle universal in language. 

2. A phrase or a sentence may be represented by a pronoun, and 
consequently be used as a substantive. (Test of Rule 1 2th.) 

Example: "It is a wonder that we were not killed by the explosion." 
Here are two simple sentences, with two verbs, the second being intro- 
duced by the conjunction, that. This second simple sentence is repre- 
sented in the first by the pronoun, it; therefore this second sentence is 
used as a substantive. 

"Ke rode up, and ordered me to leave the field, which I thought very 
strange." Which here represents the whole collection of words before 
it, the riding and the ordering. The whole phrase is, therefore, used as 
a substantive. (Test of Rule 12th.) 

3. The verb may be represented by a pronoun, and therefore be used 
as a substantive, e g. : "It is pleasant to improve." It represents to 
improve. Therefore, to improve, is used as a substantive. 

Principle thus leads again to the Infinitive Mood, as being the verb 
used substantively. 

"This swimming is not what it was said to be." The word swimming 
is here used as a substantive, because the subject of the verb is, in one 
Bimple sentence, and because represented by it in another. (Test under 
Uulo 2d.) But it is a part of the verb, swim. Principle thus leads again 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to the recognition of the real nature of the Participle, and by another path. 
It is interesting to see how all the parts of speech lead back to the same 
simple and fundamental laws of language. 

361. The first part of trie ninth attainment is ability to distinguish and 
define the parts of speech, with specifications for all, excepting the verb. 

Directions. — In parsing, begin with Logical Analysis, 
from Universal Grammar, and then define by Analytic, and 
apply rules by Synthetic- Syntax. 

The definitions are to be given, 1, generally ; 2, normally, or abnor- 
mally ; 3, specifically, for all excepting the verb. 

The Rules of Syntax are to be given, 1, generally; 2, normally or 
abnormally ; and in abnormal use, Ellipsis is to be noted. 

Examples Parser, 

"Alas ! his days are dark, who, while yet living, follows the 
funeral of his own reputation." 

1. Logical Analysis. — There are two sentences expressed, because 
there are two verbs expressed ; the verb are, and the verb follows. 
There is one sentence implied which is represented by the conjunction, 
alas ! 

The work here written, (pointing to the board, slate, or paper,) pre- 
sents the copula, and the grammatical and logical subject and predicate 
for each sentence, according to the rules given under Universal Gram- 
mar. In the first sentence expressed, the copula is are,; the grammati- 
cal subject, days; the logical, his days; the grammatical and logical 
predicate, the adjective, dark. x 

In the second sentence, the verb, follows, is equivalent to, is following. 
(46; 118, 7.) The copula is, therefore, is; the grammatical subject, who; 
the grammatical predicate, following, all shown upon the first line of the 
exerciser ~~^~ 

The logical subject is, who, while yet living. This is seen in the second 
and third lines. 

\ The logical predicate is, following at the funeral of Ms own reputation. 
xiris is seen in the second, third, and fourth lines, with their intervals. 

The prepositions at, and of, are in the intervals. 

The interjection, alas! represents a sentence ; such as, "I say it with 
sorrow." 

More details can be given in Analysis, if they are required. If not* 
parsing follows. 



PARTS OF SPEECH! PARSING. 113 

2. Parsing: Analytic. — Parsing is analytic or synthetic, and both 
are based on the relations of words in a sentence. (167.) 

By Analytic Syntax, we distinguish and define the parts of speech. 
(168.) 

Analytic Syntax is applied to words in a sentence, generally or spe- 
cifically, normally or abnormally, (169, 170.) The present exercise is to 
include all. 

ALAS/ is an Interjection, used normally, expressing sorrow. 

Gen. — An Interjection is a part of speech, expressing emotion 

or will, by substituting a word for a sentence. (190, 3.) 
This word does so. Therefore, it is an interjection. 

Use. — The word is used normally, because it requires no change 
for receiving the definition. (170.) 

Spec. — Interjections are divided according to the emotions ex- 
pressed. The emotion here expressed is sorrow. 

HIS, is a Pronoun, used normally, personal ; in person, third ; in num- 
ber, singular ; in gender, masculine ; in case, possessive. 

Gen. — A Pronoun is a substantive, used as a substitute for 
another substantive which it represents, (188, 3.) This word 
is a substitute for the man or person spoken of in the second 
sentence. Therefore, it is a pronoun. 

Use. — The word is used normally, because without change 
from its usual office. (170.) 

Spec. 1. — A Personal Pronoun is one which declares the person 
by its form. This does so. Therefore, it is personal. 

2. The third person is spoken of. This is spoken of. Therefore, 
it is in the third person. 

3. The singular number expresses one. This does so. There- 
fore, it is in the singular number. 

4. The masculine gender represents males. This does so. 
Therefore, its gender is masculine. 

5. The possessive case is that where two substantives are to 
each other in the relation of possessing and possessed. His 
and days are in that relation ; his days being equivalent to 
the days of Mm. Therefore, the case is possessive. It is 
shown also to be possessive, by the table of declensions for 
personal pronouns. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

DA YS, is a Substantive, used normally ; a noun, common ; in person, 
third ; in number, plural ; in gender, neuter ; in ease, nomi- 
native. 

Gen. — A Substantive is a part of speech which is or can be 
subject to the assertion of a verb. This is subject to the as- 
sertion of a verb. Therefore, it is a substantive. (184, 3, 4.) 

Nouns name. This names. Therefore, it is a noun. 

Use. — The word is used normally, with no change from its 
usual office. 

Spec. 1. — A Common Noun is the name of a class to which in- 
dividuals belong. This is a class to which each individual 
day belongs. Therefore, it is a common noun. 

2. The plural number expresses more than one. This does so. 
Therefore, it is in the plural number. 

3. The third person is spoken of. This expresses what is spoken 
of. Therefore, it is in the third person. 

4. The neuter gender represents neither of the sexes. This 
does so. Therefore, its gender is neuter. 

5. The Nominative Case exists where the relation of the sub- 
stantive to the verb is that of its subject. Such is the rela- 
tion here between days and are. Therefore, it is in the 
nominative case. 



ABEj is a verb, used normally. 

Gen. — The Yerb is the word in a sentence which unites the 
whole sentence, and asserts Existence or Action, always of 
a subject, (183, 3.) This asserts existence of a subject. 
Therefore, it is a verb. 

TJse. — The word is here used normally, being kept to its usual 
office as a copula. 

Spec. — No specifications are required as yet for the verb. 

Its person and number can be known from the person and num- 
ber of its subject. 

DABK, is an Adjective, used normally ; in degree, positive. It is here 
used as a predicate. 

Gen. — An Adjective is a part of speech which qualifies a sub- 



PARTS OF SPEECH: PARSING. 115 

stantive. This qualifies the substantive, days. Therefore, 
it is an adjective, (185, 3.) 

Use. — The word is used normally, since the usual office of the 
word dark, is, to qualify, (185, 2.) 

Spec. — The Positive Degree expresses no comparison. This 
indicates no comparison. Therefore, the degree is not com- 
parative, nor superlative, but positive. 

It is shown, by Logical Analysis, to be used here as a predi- 
cate, and not as an epithet. 

3. Parsing: : Synthetic. — Rules of Syntax are applied generally or 
specifically ; normally or abnormally. 
The present exercise does not include the Rules of Syntax, specifically. 
Rules of Syntax require us to begin with the whole sentence. 

Use. — This sentence is used normally ; no change is required for ap- 
plying the Rules of Syntax. The Logical Analysis shows there is no 
Ellipsis to be supplied. There is no inversion of order, requiring trans- 
position. The only substitution to assist the understanding of the pars- 
ing, is of Mm for his. The Rules of Syntax can, therefore, be applied 
normally. They are to be applied, therefore, generally and normally, 
thus: 

Alas! has no grammatical construction, according to the 18th 
Rule of Syntax: "An Interjection has no grammatical con- 
struction." 
This is an Interjection, as was proved under Analytic Syntax. 
Therefore, the rule applies. 

His, is governed by days, according to the 10th Rule of Syntax, 
viz. : "A Substantive, in the possessive case, is governed by 
the substantive possessed, or through substitution, by a prepo- 
sition understood." 

His, is in the Possessive Case, as was shown by Analytic Syntax. 
The word, days, is the Substantive possessed. Therefore, the 
former word is governed by the latter. 

Bays, is Nominative to the verb, are, by the 1st Rule of Syntax. 
"A substantive, the subject of a finite verb, is in the nomina- 
tive case to the verb." 

This word is the subject of the finite verb. Therefore, it is in tho 
nominative case to the verb. 

Are, agrees with days, in number and person, being of the plural 
number, and third person, according to the 2d Rule of Syntax, 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

viz. : " The finite verb agrees with its subject or nominative, in 

number and person." 
The word, days, being the subject, and being in the third person, 

and plural number, the verb can only agree by being in the 

same person and number. 
Dark, qualifies days, by the 5th Rule of Syntax, viz. : "Adjec- 
tives qualify substantives, as predicates after the verb, and as 

epithets near the substantive." 
Dark, is an adjective, used as a predicate. This was shown by 

Logical Analysis, and by Analytic Syntax. As a predicate,, it 

qualifies the subject or substantive, days. 

Obs. — The learner will observe that after advancing, he can unite 
Analytic and Synthetic Syntax for each word in parsing, e. g. : Days is 
a noun, common, third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nomi- 
native case, to the verb "are," by the 1st Rule of Syntax. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: VERBS. 117 



Sec. 8.— Verbs. 

362. A Verb is the word in a sentence which unites the 
whole sentence, and asserts existence or action, always of a 
subject, and with or without an object ; as, " Snow is cold." 
" He reads a letter." " Time flies." 

Divisions. 

363. The divisions of Verbs, in English, are the same with 
those given under Universal Grammar. 

The divisions and definitions are hero repeated. 

364 According to their meanings apart from a sentence, Verbs are 
Neuter, or Active. An Active Verb signifies action. 

365. According to their uses in a sentence, they are Transitive, Intran- 
sitive, or Copulative. 

366. A Transitive Verb is one which requires a substantive, as its ob- 
ject, to complete its sense ; as, "William hits James." 

367. An Intransitive Verb is one which does not require a substantive 
as its object; as, " "blsm thinks." 

368. A Copulative Verb is one used as a copula, and which can take 
after it, a substantive, which is a predicate for a subject before it; as, 
44 Silver is a mineral.^ 

Transitive Verbs. 

369. 1. Transitive Verbs are used in two voices, the Active 
and the Passive. 

2. In the Active Voice, the subject and object are separated ; 
as, " The wind shakes the house." 

3. In the Passive Voice, the subject of the verb and the 
object of the action are the same; as, "The house is shaken hy 
the wind." " House " is the subject of the verb, and the ob- 
ject of the action. 

That which is the object of a transitive verb in the Active 
Voice, becomes the subject of the same verb in the Passive 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Voice. It is not correct to say "I was promised a book." It 
breaks this rule. 

4. Transitive verbs express action, passing over from the agent to ai* 
object. 

Intransitive Verbs. 

370. 1. Intransitive Verbs cannot, regularly, be used in the 
Passive Voice. 

2. The same verb is sometimes used both transitively, and 
intransitively; as, "He runs a race." "He runs." 

The first is transitive, having a substantive as its object; the second 
is intransitive, having no object expressed, or understood. 

3. Intransitive Verbs express an action limited to the agent; as, u He 
sleeps." "He walks" A condition of existence is often the fundamental 
idea, but this is represented by the verb as an action ; as, " He sickens" 

Copulative Verbs. 

371. 1. Copulative Verbs are Universal, or Partial. 

2. The Universal Copulative is the substantive verb 
"to be," used solely as a copula; as, "Iron is a mineral." 

Its signification is, simply, being. A verb, with that signification, is 
the copula, in all languages. 

3. Partial Copulatives are those which add other uses 
to that of the copula; as, "Napoleon was elected emperor." 
"The child was named Ichabod." "When I became a man." 

Among their significations are, to seem, to be chosen, to be named, to 
become, to grow, to remain, with some others. 

Auxiliary Verbs, 

3? 2. 1. Some Verbs assist others in expressing some circumstance, 
such as cause, manner, or time ; as, I may strike ; I might strike ; I would 
Btrike ; I have struck. 

2. A Verb, thus assisting, is called an Auxiliary. The Verb 
assisted is said to be principal to the auxiliary. 

In the words "I will have," will is the auxiliary, and have is the prin- 
cipal verb. In the words " have willed," have is the auxiliary, and willed 



PARTS OF SPEECH: VERBS. 119 

is the principal verb It is thus seen, that a verb, used as an auxiliary, 
may become a principal to some other verb. 

3. An Auxiliary Verb, therefore, is one joined with another 
verb, to express some circumstance of the existence, or action 
(or the reciprocal of the action, which is passion,) asserted by 
the verb of its subject. 

373. The Auxiliaries, in English, are eight. They are, be, 
have, do ; can, may, will, must, shall, with their variations. 

374. These eight are in two classes; the Common, and the 
Modal. Three belong to the first class, and five to the second. 

375. Common auxiliaries unite the principal verb to its sub« 
ject, simply, without indicating the cause of the being, action, 
or passion ; as, I have loved ; I am loved ; I do love. Tha 
three common auxiliaries are be, have, and do. 

376. Modal auxiliaries unite the principal verb to its sub- 
ject, not simply, but by indicating the cause of the being, 
action, or passion. The five modal auxiliaries are can, may, 
will, must, shall. 

377. Can expresses the cause, generally, by referring to a power 
for the being, action, or passion. It signifies possibility, and power. 
The others express the cause by specifying. If the cause be without 
hindrance, this is liberty. If the cause be in the mind, this is will. 
If the cause be with obligation, this is necessity. May expresses the 
liberty; will, the will; must, and shall, the necessity. 

Such are the primary meanings of the Auxiliary Verbs. Their second- 
ary meanings will appear subsequently. 

Modifications. 

378. The Modifications of Verbs are Persons, Numbers. 
Moods, Tenses, Participles. 

Persons and Numbers. 

379. Persons and Numbers are modifications for expressing 
the agreement of the verb with its subject. 

Each Person has two numbers, the singular and plural ; each Number, 
three persons, the first, second, and third. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

380. The general form for the Second Person Singular, is 
$t } and for the Third Person Singular, s; as, 

Singular Plural. 

First Person, I love. We love. 

Second Person, Thou loves£. You love. 

Third Person, He loves. They love. 

381. In the Plural, the verb appears unchanged. 



Moods. 



382. Moods are modifications, which shew how the speaker 
uses the verb in a sentence. They distinguish simple declara- 
tion from other modes of using the verb. 

383. 1. There are, in English, five Moods : the Indicative, 
Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive. To these 
may be added a sixth, the Interrogative. 

2. A general view of the Participle is necessary for com- 
pleting the understanding of the subject of Moods, since the 
participle is one mode of using the Verb. By the definition 
just given, (382,) it must be included. A. particular view of 
the Participle, however, can only be given after Tenses have 
been explained. 



384. The Indicative Mood is that which simply declares; 
as, "I think ;" I say ;" "you know ;" "he speaks" 



385. The Potential Mood is that which uses, with the 
principal verb, one of the modal auxiliaries, and thus express- 
es possibility, power, liberty, will, or necessity ; as, I can 
love ; I may love ; I must love. 

386. The Indicative and Potential Moods do not necessarily 
imply another sentence. They are used for simple independ 
ent sentences. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: VERBS, MOODS. 121 

387. 1. The Subjunctive Mood is that which requires two 
sentences, the one dependent, conditionally, on the other ; as, 
" If he come, I will be glad to see him." 

2. The Subjunctive, therefore, requires a second verb in 
the other sentence, and a conjunction, expressed or understood, 
in its own; as, "Were he here, I would tell him;"===".Zjf he 
were here, I would tell him." 

3. The Subjunctive Mood is usually formed in English, by 
using the simple form of the verb, as seen in the plural ; as, 
"If thou love;" "If he have." 



388. 1. The Imperative Mood is that which expresses the 
will of the speaker ; as, go, come, wahe, return. The will may 
be declared to one viewed as inferior, equal, or superior, and 
thus be command, persuasion, or petition. 

e.g.: "Bring me some bread ;" "Be advised ;" "Permit me." 

389. 2. The Imperative appears in English in the Second 
Person in both numbers. It implies, in its sense, another 
verb ; as, "go off;"—"I will that you go off." 



390. 1. The Infinitive Mood* is that which uses the verb 
as a substantive, by means of a preposition expressed or un- 
derstood. It may, therefore, receive a substantive as its sub- 
stitute, without altering the sense. 

e.g. : "To exercise is healthful -"=*" Exercise is healthful." "The horse 
wants to drink ;"=*=" The horse wants drink." 

2. The Infinitive Mood, apart from the sentence, is represented, in 
English, by the preposition, "to," placed before the verb; as, to oe, to 
"have, to love. 

3. In a sentence, being used as a substantive, it must, like any other 
substantive, be a subject or an object. 

6 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

As a subject, it retains the preposition "to"; as, "To improve is 
pleasant." 

As an object, after a transitive verb, it drops "to," only after a few 
verbs, which are about eight in number. They are bid, dare, feel, hear, 
let, make, need, see. e. g. : " I bid you go."= u I bid you to go." "I dare 
do all.' W I dare to do all." 

As an object, not after a transitive verb, the infinitive implies, necessarily, 
a preposition understood, if not expressed. This preposition is "for," or 
some equivalent. In the ancient use of the English language, " for " 
was expressed; as, " What went ye out for to see T'=" What went ye 
out for seeing ? r * 
. 4. Some consider " to," as the preposition governing the infinitive. 

5. The infinitive, as a substantive, thus comes under the rules for all 
substantives. 

6. The name " infinitive " is applied, because the verb, in that mood, 
is not limited to its proper office, nor to agreement, in person and number, 
with a subject. Infinitive has a similar sense with "infinite," and means 
what is not limited. The finite forms of the verb are in the indicative, 
potential, subjunctive, and imperative moods. 

• 391. The Interrogative Mood is that which is used in asking a 
question; as, "Do you see?" 

Theory requires this mood, but not usage. Interrogation, is, like com- 
mand, distinct from declaration. Therefore, as we distinguish the imper- 
ative from the indicative, we might, the interrogative. In strictness, this 
is required by the definition of mood, since mood distinguishes declam- 
ation from other modes of using the verb (382.) In deference, however, 
to established usage, it will be considered as one form of the indicative. 
In parsing a question, the verb may be said to be in the 
indicative interrogative. 

It pertains to the indicative, because its form is the same; as, "WiU 
lie come ?" "He will come." 

Where there is no interrogation, but simple declaration, the verb, in 
parsing, will simply be said to be in the indicative. 

392. The Participle is that form of the verb which uses 
the verb as an adjective; as, loving, loved; seeing, seen. 

The participle is expressed, in English, by certain terminations added 
to the verb, such as, ing, ed. 

It is called "participle," because it par-tic-i-pates in the functions of 
the verb, and adjective ; and, like other adjectives, in the functions of 
the substantive. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: TENSES. 



123 







RECAPITULATION. 










Jibocfo. 










* 1. For one sen- ^ 
tence only. . " 


" 1. Declaring ( 
simply. . . " 

2. Causally.. - 


Indicative . . 
Potential. . . 


g 




" 1. Normally, ... i 








r3 
25 

p 

00 




2. For two de- 
pendent sen- - 
tences ..... 


"1. Both ex-1 

pressed. . \ 

2. One im- 
plied. ..* " 


Subjunctive. 
J Imperative. . 


*3 

TO 


H 


k 2. Abnormally, - 


r 1. As Substanti 


ve - 


Infinitive. . . 


<o 






© 






; 2. As Adjective 




| Participle. . 


1 







Tenses. 

393. 1. Tense3 are modifications of the verb, to express the 
time for the action, or existence, asserted. 

2. The expression of time is indispensable to the verb. It 
is so indispensable, that, in some languages, the verb is called 
the time -word. 

394. The Tenses are divided and named, by combining three 
views of time, with two of existence or action. The Time 
is Past, Present, or Future. The action, or existence, is con- 
tinuing, or completed. In the names of Tenses, expressing 

completed action, or existence, the word perfect is inserted ; thus: 

Action, 



and 










Existence 


, .in 


Time, form 


Ten 


ii 


continuing, " 


" ,Present, " 


the Present 


ii 


(i 


ii it 


" ,Past, " 


" Past 


it 


it 


it u 


11 ,Future, " 


" Future 


ii 


u 


completed, " 


" , Present, " 


11 Present-Perfect 


ii 


It 


a <i 


" ,Past, " 


" Past-Perfect 


u 


(1 


u ii 


" ,Future, " 


" Future-Perfect 


t< 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

395. Six Tenses are thus formed : the Present, and Pre- 
sent-Perfect ; the Past, and Past-Perfect ; the Future, 
and Future Perfect. 

The primary meanings of the Tenses only are given. Their secondary 
meanings will be learned by observation. 



396. The Present Tense is that which speaks of an 
Action, or of Existence, in the present time; as, "I write;" 
u I am writing a letter." 

397. The Present-Perfect Tense is that which uses the 
auxiliary, have, and its variations, to express an Action as 
completed, or Existence as terminating, at the present time ; 
as, " I have written the letter ;" " The letter has been written." 



398. The Past Tense is that which speaks of Action or 
Existence in past time ; as, " I wrote the letter;" " I was writ- 
ing when you stopped me ;" "I loved" It is formed regular- 
ly, by adding ed ; irregularly, by a change of vowel. 

This tense is often called the Imperfect Tense, because the- Action is 
not spoken of as perfected, or completed. 



399. The Past-Perfect Tense is that which uses the 
auxiliary, had, and its variations, to express an Action as 
completed, or Existence as terminating at or before some past 
time ; as, "I had written the letter before the mail arrived." 

This tense is often called Pluperfect, or more than perfect, because it 
adds the idea of past time, to the idea of a perfected or completed 
Action. 

400. The Future Tense is that which uses the auxiliaries 
will, and shall, with their variations, to express Action, or Ex- 
istence, in future time : as, " I will write ; and we shall feel 
satisfied." 



PARTS op speech: tenses. 125 

401. The Future Perfect Tense is that which uses the 
auxiliaries, will have, and shall have, with their variations, to 
express an action as completed, or existence as terminating, at, 
or before a future time ; as, " I shall have written my letter by 
ten o'clock, and, by that time, my mother will have arrived." 

Such are the Tenses of verbs, in English, formed by the simple process 
of combining Time (past, present, future,) with Existence, or Action 
(continuing, completed.) 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Sec. 9. — Participles. 



402. 1. Participles are those forms of the verb which can 
be used both as verbs and adjectives ; as, loving, loved, 

2. As verbs, Participles govern an object, when they are derived from 
transitive verbs. As verbs, they express existence, or action, with its 
reciprocal, passion. As verbs, they express time (393, 2). As adjectives, 
Participles qualify substantives. Like other adjectives, they may be 
used as substantives. Hence comes their name. They are called Par- 
ticiples, because they participate in the functions of three of the material 
parts of speech. 

3. One part of speech may perform the functions of another. In the 
Participles, verbs do this, only more extensively than do other parts of 
speech. Participles, then, are not a separate part of speech ; they are 
parts of the verb, and are shewn to be such, by their sense and form. 

403. Verbs have three Participles, which are named from 
the distinctions of time, which they represent. They are the 
Present, the Past, and the Perfect. 

404. The Present and the Past are represented, simply, by the 
terminations, ing, for the Present ; and ed, (usually) for the 
Past. The Perfect is represented as the Perfect Tenses are, 
by the auxiliary, have, (put in the form, having,) placed be- 
fore the Past Participle, e.g. : The three participles of the 
verb love, are : 

Present : Loving ; Past : Loved ; Perfect : Having loved. 

405. The Participles express Action and Passion, by the 
same terminations which are used to express distinctions of 
Time. Loving, is the Active Participle ; Loved, is the Passive 
Participle. 

Active: Loving; Passive: Loved. 

There is a natural connection between Present Time, and Action 
going on. There is a natural connection between Past Time, and Action 
received. And Action received, is Passion. The use of the same parti- 
cles for modes of Time and modes of Action, in the Indo-European 
language, is, thus, natural. 

406. The same Participle, used as a verb for Time, Action, Passion 
and Government ; used as an Adjective, to qualify a Substantive ; used 



PARTS OF SPEECH! CONJUGATION. 127 

as a substantive, both as a subject and an object, will be seen in the fol- 
lowing examples : 



Verb. 



'Time: Present, "loving;" Past, "loved." 
. < Action: "lam loving. 71 Re-action: "I am loved. 19 
fc Government : "lam loving you." 

Adjective.,. \ Qualifying: "A loving heart." "A loved sister." 



Substantive. 



Subject : " The loving of men is our duty." 
" The loved may be lost." 



Object: " God has commanded the loving of men." 
" We may lose the loved." 

Here, the same words perform different functions. But their source 
is the verb love. 

Conjugation. 

407. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrangement of 
its modifications, according to Mood, Participles, Tense, Per- 
son, and Number. 

The Conjugation of an Active Transitive Verb is called the Active 
Voice ; and that of a Passive Verb, the Passive Voice. 

408. 1. Verbs are divided, according to their Conjugation, 
into those of the old form, and those of the modern form. 

2. Verbs of the modern Conjugation form the Past Parti- 
ciple, and Past Tense, by adding ed to the present ; as, present 
love; past participle, loved; past tense, loved. These are 
often called Regular Verbs. 

3. Verbs of the old Conjugation do not form the Past Par- 
ticiple, and Past Tense, by adding ed to the present; but 
usually change the vowel of the present ; as, see, saw, seen; 
present, ring ; past, rang ; past participle, rung. 

409. 1. To these two important divisions, based on Conjugation, can 
be added two others, demanding less attention, viz. : Verbs are Defect- 
ive or Redundant. 



123 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. A Defective Verb is one, some of whose parts are wanting; as, can, 
may, ought 

3. A Redundant Verb is one that has two or more forms for any one 
part; as, "I lighted;'' "I lit;' 1 "I dreamed;" "I dreamt; 1 ' "I dug ; n 
" I digged." 

4. To the Defective belong the Impersonal Verbs. They are Verbs 
only, used in the Third Person Singular; as, "methinks." 

Mode op Conjugating. 

410. The principal parts of the verb used in conjugation, 
are the Present and Past Indicative, and the Past Par- 
ticiple. They are named as the basis for conjugating the 

verb,, thus : 

Past 
Present Past Participle. 

Old Conjugation; Irregular: See, Saw, fceen. 

Modekn " Kegular: Love, Loved, Loved. 

411. After these parts of the verb are fixed, the next step 
is to learn the simple tenses. 

The Simple Tenses are those conjugated without an aux- 
iliary. The Compound Tenses are those which have an aux- 
iliary; e.g.: "Hove" is Simple; "I have loved," is Com- 
pound. 

412. The Simple Tenses are found in the Indicative, Subjunctive, Im- 
perative, and Infinitive Moods. 

In the Indicative, they are the Present, and the Past. 

Pules of Formation for Simple Tenses. 

413. 1. In the Present Tense Indicative, to form the three numbers and 
persons, the general rule is, to add st, or est, for the second person, and 
s, es, or eth, for the third person, in the singular; as, Hove; TIiou hvest; 
He loves, or loveth.* 

2. For the plural, preserve the simple form of the verb, through all the 
persons ; as, We love ; You love ; They love. 

3. (a.) In the past tense the formation will depend on the verb, being 
of the old form, and irregular, or of the modern form, and regular. 

*ffih, is the ancient form. 



PARTS OF speech: NOUNS. 129 

(b.) If it be of the Modern Conjugation (called regular), the mark of 
the past tense will be ed. To this tense-form, must be added the per- 
sonal termination, st, for the second person, singular ; as, 

(c.) Ilov-ed; Thou lov-ed-st ; He loved. 

If it be of the Old Conjugation (irregular), then the personal termina- 
tion for the second person, singular, will be the only addition made; 

as, 

I saw; Thousaw-est; He saw. 

(d.) The plural, in the past tense, is made by preserving the same form 
as in the first person, singular, through all the cases ; as, 

Old Conjugation ; (Irregular) : We saw ; You saw ; They saw. 
Modern " (Regular): We loved; You loved; They loved. 

4. In the Subjunctive, the rule is to take the form of the verb, in the 
plural of the indicative mood, and to preserve that without change, for 
the different numbers and persons. For example ; in the verb, to have, 
the plural of the present indicative is, we have. Therefore the subjunctive 
present is, If I have, if thou have, if he have ; If we have, if you have, if 
they have. 

The plural of the present indicative for the verb to love, is we love. 
Therefore the subjunctive present is, If Hove, if thou love, if he love; If 
we love, if you love, if they love. 

The same rule extends to the verb, to be. Its old form, in the present 
plural, was, be; as, "We be twelve brethren." Therefore the subjunc- 
tive present is, If I be, if thou be, if he be ; If we be, if you be, if they be. 

The past tense of this verb, to be, has were in the plural; as, "We 
were." Therefore the subjunctive imperfect is, If I were, If thou were, or 
wert, if he were; If we were, if you were, if they were. 

5. The Infinitive is formed by prefixing the preposition to ; as, "To love." 
The Imperative presents the verb simply; as, "Be, love." 

Such are the rules in conjugation for forming the simple tenses, in 
the Indicative and Subjunctive, Infinitive and Imperative. There are 
but few exceptions, and they can be learned by observation. 



414. Examples and exercises will now be given : 1, In the Auxiliary 
Verbs ; 2, In the Modern Conjugation, (regular) ; 3, In the Old Conju- 
gation, (irregular.) 

6* 



130 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Simple Tenses. 

(a.) Auxiliary Verbs, 

The Auxiliary Verb " to be," is conjugated in the Simple Tenses, as 
follows : 

1. Infinitive. TO BE. 

Pres. Past. Past Part. 

Principal Parts : Am. Was. Been. 

Indicative Mood. 



Present Tense. 
Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I am. 


1. We are. 


2. Thou art. 


2. You are. 


3. He is. 


3. They are. 


Past Tense. 




1. I was. 


1. We were. 


2. Thou wast. 


2. You were. 


3. He was. 


3. They were. 


Subjunctive Mood. 


Present Tense. 
Singular. 


Plural. 


1. If I be. 


1. If we be. 


2. If thou be. 


2. If you be. 


3. If he be. 


3. If they be. 


Past Tense. 




1. If I were. 


1. If we were. 


2. If thou were, or wert. 


2. If you were. 


3. If he were. 


3. If they were. 


Imperative Mood 

Singular. 


Plural. 


Be, or be thou. 


Be, or be ye, or you. 


Participles, 




Present, Being. 


''Past, Been. 


2. Infinitive. TO HAYE. 




Pres. 


Past. Past Part 


'rincipal Parts : Have. 


Had. Had. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: CONJUGATION. 



131 



Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I have. 

2. Thou hast. 

3. He has or hath. 



Past Tense. 



1. I had. 

2. Thouhadst. 

3. He had. 



Plural. 

1. We have. 

2. You have. 

3. They have. 



1. We had. 

2. You had. 

3. They had. 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I have. 

2. If thou have. 

3. If he have. 



Plural. 

1. If we have. 

2. If you have. 

3. If they have. 



Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

Have, or have thou. Have or have ye or you 



Singular. 
Present, Having. 



Participles. 



Plural. 
Past, Had. 



3. CAN. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I can. 

2. Thou canst. 

3. He can. 



Past Tense. 



1. I could. 

2. Thou couldst. 

3. He could. 



Plural. 

1. We can. 

2. Ye or you can. 

3. They can. 

1. We could. 

2. Ye or you could. 

3. They could. 



132 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. MAY. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 

1. I may. 

2. Thou mayst or inayest. 

3. He may. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might. 

2. Thou mightst or mightest. 

3. He might. 

5. WILL. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 

1. I will. 

2. Thou wilt. 

3. He will. 



Past Tense. 



1. I would. 

2. Thou wouldst. 

3. He would. 



Plural. 

1. "We may. 

2. Ye or you may. 

3. They may. 



1. We might. 

2. Ye or you might. 

3. They might. 



Plural. 

1. We will. 

2. Ye or you will. 

3. They will. 

1. We would. 

2. Ye or you would. 

3. They would. 



Singular. 

1. I must. 

2. Thou must. 

3. He must. 



6. MUST. 
Present Tense. 



Plural. 

1. We must. 

2. You must. 

3. They must. 



*7. SHALL. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 

1. I shall. 

2. Thou shalt. 

3. He shall. 

Past Tense. 

1. I should. 

2. Thou shouldst. 

3. He should. 



Plural. 

1. We shall. 

2. Ye or you shall. 

3. They shall. 



1. We should. 

2. Ye or you should. 

3. They should. 



PARTS OF SPEECH: CONJUGATION. 133 



8. TO DO. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do. 1. We do. 

2. Thou dost. 2. Ye or you do. 

3. He doth or does. 3. They do. 

Past Tense. 

1. I did. 1. We did. 

2. Thou didst. 2. Ye or you did. 

3. He did. 3. They did. 

Participles. 

Present, Doing. Past, Done. 



Simple Tenses. 

(&.) Verbs of the Modern Conjugation, (Regular.) 

Infinitive. TO LOVE. 

Pres. Past. Past Part 

Principal Parts: Love. Loved. Loved. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. Ye or you love. 

3. He, she, or it, loveth, or loves. 3. They love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved. 1 . We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. Ye or you loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Subjunctive Mood.* 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

* Though only the Conjunction, " if" is affixed to the verb, any other conjunction 
proper for the subjunctive mood, may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed 



134 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Imperative Mood. 
Love, or love thou. Love, or love ye, or you. 

Participles. 
Present, Loving. Past, Loved. 



Simple Tenses. 
(c.) Verbs of the Old Conjugation, (Irregular.) 



Infinitive. TO SEE. 



Pres. Past Past Part 
Principal Parts: See. Saw. Seen. 


Indicative Mood. 




Present Tense. 
Singular. 

1. I see. 

2. Thou seest. 

3. He sees. 


Plural. 

1. "We see. 

2. Te or you see. 

3. They see. 


Past Tense, 




1. I saw. 

2. Thou sawest. 

3. He saw. 


1. We saw. 

2. Ye or you saw. 

3. They saw. 


SUBJTTNCTIVE MOOD 




Present Tense. 
Singular. 

1. If I see. 

2. If thou see. 

3. If he see. 


Plural. 

1. If we see. 

2. If ye or you see. 

3. If they see. 


Imperfect Tense. 

1. If I saw. 

2. If thou saw. 

3. If he saw. 


1. If we saw. 

2. If you saw. 

3. If they saw. 


Imperative Mood. 




Singular. 

See, or see thou. 


Plural. 

See, or see ye, or you. 



verbs: compound tenses. 135 

Participles. 
Present, Seeing. Past, Seen. 

These examples present the Conjugation of the Simple Tenses. 



Compound Tenses. 

415. Compound Tenses are those which are formed by 
means of the Auxiliary Verbs. 

416. Certain modifications are to be expressed. The Auxiliaries are 
means for expressing them. 

The modifications to be expressed, are: 

1. Time in all the Moods; as, "Thave loved." 

2. The Potential Mood; as, "I may love." 

3. The Reciprocal of the Action, called Passion; as, "I am loved." 

4. Various forms, viz. : 

(a.) Emphasis; as, "Icfolove." 

(b.) Interrogation; as, "Do I love?" 

(c.) Negation ; as, " I do not love." 

(d.) Progression; as, "I am loving." 

(e.) The Logical Form ; as, "He is loving." 

(/.) The Terminating Form ; as, "I have done loving." 
The Auxiliaries are applied in the following manner, to express these 
modifications: 

41 1. 1. Infinitive Mood.— The Perfect Tense, Infinitive, is formed by- 
putting the verb, "to have," before the Past Participle; as, Present, to 
love; Perfect, to have loved. 

2. Participle. — The Perfect Participle is formed by putting "having " 
before the Past Participle; as, Present Part., loving; Perfect, having 
loved. 

3. Indicative Mood. — The Present Perfect is formed by "have," and 
the Past Perfect by "had," put before the Past Participle; as, I have 
loved ; I had loved. 

The Future Indicative is formed by " shall " or " will " placed before 
the Present Tense ; as, I shall or will love. The Future Perfect is formed 
by "shall" or "will," placed before the Present Perfect Tense; as, 1 
shall — have loved; I will — have loved; I will — have seen; I will — have 
gone. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Potential Mood. — The Present Tense of the Potential is formed 
by the Present of the Modal Auxiliaries, placed before the Present 
Tense, Indicative, or the Simple Form of the Verb ; as, I may love ; 1 
must love. 

The Past Tense of the Potential is formed by putting the Past Tense 
of the Modal Auxiliaries before the Present, or Simple Form of the 
Verb ; as, / might, could, would, or should — love ; I would — go ; I might 
—be. 

The Present Perfect of the Potential is formed by putting the Present 
Tense of the Modal Auxiliaries before the Perfect Tense of the Indica- 
tive; as, I may — have loved; TJiou may est — have loved. 

The Past Perfect of the Potential is formed by putting the Past Tense 
of the Modal Auxiliaries before the Perfect Tense of the Indicative; as, 
I might, could, would, or should — have loved. 

5. Passive Voice. — The Passive Voice is formed by putting the verb 
to be, in all its changes of number, person, mood, and tense, before the 
past participle; as, I am — loved. I have been — loved. I might have 
been — loved. Having been — loved. 

6. Various Forms. — 

1. The Emphatic Form; as, I do love. I did love. 

2. The Interrogative Form ; as, Do you lenow % Did you know t 

3. The Negative Form ; as, I do not know. I did not know. 
These three are all made by the auxiliary, do, in its present and past, 

combined with the verb in its simple form. 

4. The Progressive Form ; as, i" am walking. 

5. The Logical Form ; as, / am walking. 

These are made by the auxiliary, to be, put before the present partici- 
ple of the verb ; as, lam loving. 

6. The Terminating Form; as, I have done ivriting. 

I had done writing. 

This is made by the present or past perfect, of the auxiliary, do, united 
to the present participle of the verb. 

418. These rules will now be exemplified after the same order as be- 
fore : 1, In Auxiliaries ; 2, In the Modern Conjugation, (regular) ; 3, In 
the Old Conjugation, (irregular.) 

As the Passive Voice requires the verb "to be," and that requires the 
verb "to have, ,> for conjugation, the first Auxiliary will be "to have," 
which forms its perfect form itself, and employs only the Simple Tenses 
of the Modal Auxiliaries, to form its Potential. By this verb, we can 
then conjugate the verb "to be." By the latter verb, we can form the 



verbs: complete conjugation. 



137 



Passive Yoice, and those forms of the verb, which depend on the verb 
" to be." We shall thus have the advantage of using no element in 
combination which has not been previously learned. 

The Compound Tenses will not be separated, but the complete conju- 
gation of the verb will be presented, and the Simple Tenses, therefore, 
repeated. 

Complete Conjugation. 

(a) Auxiliaries. 

1. TO HAVE. 





Pres. Past Past Part 


Principal Parts: 


Have. Had. Had. 




Indicative Mood. 




Present Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I have. 


1. We have. 


2. Thou hast. 


2. Ye or you have. 


3. He, she, or it hath 


or has. 3. They have. 




Past Tense. 


1. I had. 


1. We had. 


2. Thouhadst. 


2. Ye or you had. 


3. He, she, or it had. 


3. They had. 




Present Perfect Tense. 


1. I have had. 


1. We have had. 


2. Thou hast had. 


2. Ye or you have had. 


3. He has had. 


3. They have had. 




Past Perfect Tense. 


1. I had had. 


1. We had had. 


2. Thou hadst had. 


2. Ye or you had had. 


3. He had had. 


3. They had had. 



1. I shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 

3. He shall or will have. 



Future Tense. 

1. We shall or will have. 

2. Ye or you shall or will have. 

3. They shall or will have. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall or will have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 

3. He will have had. 3. They will have had. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 

2. Have, or have thou, or do thou 2. Have, or have ye, or do ye or you 

have. have. 

3. Let him have. 3. Let them have. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 

3. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have, 

Past Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

have. have. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or 

or shouldst have. should have. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have. should have. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have had. 2. Ye or you may or can have had. 

3. He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

have had. have had. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or- 

or shouldst have had. should have had. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have had. should have had.* 

* Shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, promise, may be consid- 
ered, as well as should and would, as belonging to the potential mood. But as they 
generally signify futurity, they have been appropriated, as helping verbs for the form- 
ation of future tenses. 



VERBS: COMPLETE CONJUGATION. 



139 



Subjunctive Mood. 







Present Tense. 




Singular. 

1. If I have. 

2. If thou have. 

3. If he have. 




Plural. 

1. If we have. 

2. If ye or you have. 

3. If they have. 

Infinitive Mood. 




Present, To have. 




Perfect, To have had. 
Participles. 






Present or Active, Having. 
Past, Had. 
Perfect, Having had. 








2. TO BE. 




Principal Parts: 




Pres. Past. 
Am. Was. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 


Past Part. 
Been. 


Singular. 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He, she, or it is. 




Plural. Plural. Old Form 

1. We are. 1. We be. 

2. Ye or you are. 2. You be. 

3. They are. 3. They be. 






Past Tense. 




1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 




1. We were. 

2. Ye or you were. 

3. They were. 





1. I have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He hath or has been. 



1. I had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 

3. He had been. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

1. We have been. 

2. Ye or you have been. 

3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. We had been. 

2. Ye or you had been. 

3. They had been. 



MO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. "Wo shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have been. 1. "We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have b?en. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 

2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 

3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 

3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might, 'could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

be. be. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst 2. Ye or you might, could, would or 

or shouldst be. should be. 

3. Ho might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may or can have been. 1. "We may or can have been. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have been. 2. Ye or you may or can have been. 

3. He may or can have been. 3. They may or can have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

have been. have been. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst have been. or should have been. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 



verbs: complete conjugation. 



HI 



Singular. 

1. If I be. 

2. If thou be. 

3. If be be. 



1. If I were. 

2. If thou wert. 

3. If he were. 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Plural. 

1. If we be. 

2. If ye or you be. 

3. If they be. 



Past Tense. 



1. If we were. 

2. If ye or you were. 

3. If they were. 



Infinitive Mood. 
Present Tense, To be. Perfect, To have been. 

Participles. 
Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 



Complete Conjugation. 
(&.) Modem Form, (Regular.) 

The Transitive Verb, " to love," is of the Modern, or Regular Conju- 
gation, because forming its Past Tense and Past Participle, by adding 
ed, or d, to the Present. 

It is conjugated as follows : 



TO- LOVE. 



Principal Parts: 



Singular. 

1. I love. 

2. Thou lovest. 



Pres. 
Love. 



Past 
Loved. 



Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Plural. 

1. We love. 

2. Ye or you love. 



Past Part 
Loved. 



3. He, she, or it loveth or loves. 3. They love. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. 1. Wo loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. Ye or you loveu. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have loved. 

3. He hath or has loved, 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me love. 1. Let us love. 

2. Love thou or do thou love. 2. Love ye or you, or do ye love, 

3. Let him love. 3. Let them love. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love. 

3. He may or can love. 3. They may or can love. 



verbs: complete conjugation. 143 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. "We might, could, would, or should 

love. love, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2, Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst love. or should love. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3, They might, could, would, or 

should love. should love. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may or can have loved. 

2. Thoumayst or canst have loved. 2. Ye or you may or can have loved. 

3. He may or can have loved. 3. They may cr can have loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

have loved. have loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst have loved. or should have loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have loved. should have loved. 



Subjunctive Mood, 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If yeor you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present To love. Perfect To have loved. 

Participles. 
Present Loving. Past Loved. Perfect. Having loved. 



144 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Passive. 

The Passive Voice is conjugated by adding the Past Participle to the 
Auxiliary "to be," through all its changes of number, person, mood, 
and tense, in the following manner : 

TO BE LOVED. 

Indicative Mood. 



Singular. 

1. I am loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 

3. He is loved. 



Present Tense. 
Plural. 

1. We are loved. 

2. Ye or you are loved. 

3. They are loved. 



1. I was loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 

3. He was loved. 



Past Tense. 



1 . "We were loved. 

2. Ye or you were loved. 

3. They were loved. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



1. I have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 

3. He hath or has been loved. 



1. We have been loved. 

2. Ye or you have been loved. 

3. They have been loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



1. I had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 



1. We had been loved. 

2. Ye or you had been loved. 

3. They had been loved. 



Future Tense. 



1. I shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved. 



1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. Ye or you shall or will be loved. 

3. They shall or will be loved. 



Future Perfect Tense. 



1. I shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 
I. He will have been loved. 



1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Ye or you will have been loved. 

3. They will have been loved. 



verbs: conjugation of the passive. 145 



Impebative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be loved. 1. Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do ye bo 

be loved. loved. 

3. Let him be loved, 3. Let them be loved. 



Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be loved. 1. We may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be loved. 2. Ye or you may or can be loved. 

3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved. 



Past Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

be loved. be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2, Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst be loved. or should be loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should be loved. should be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may or can have been loved. 1. We may or can have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have been 2. Ye or you may or can have been 

loved. loved. 

3. He may or can have been loved. 3. They may cr can have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 

have been loved. have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst have been loved. or should have been loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. h should have been loved. 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 



Plural. 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If ye or you be loved. 

3. If they be loved. 



Past Tense. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If ye or you^were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved. 



Present 
Being loved. 



Participles. 

Past or Passive. 
Loved. 



Perfect 
Having been loved. 



Complete Conjugation. 

(c.) Old Form, (Irregular.) 

TO SEE. 





Pres. Past 


Principal Parts: 


See. Saw. 




Infinitive Mood. 


Present, To see. 


Perfec 



Past Part, 



Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I see. 

2. Thou seest. 

3. He sees. 



Plural. 

1. "We see. 

2. You see. 

3. They see. 



verbs: conjugation, old form. 



147 



Past Tense, 
Singular. 

1. I saw. 

2. Thou sawest. 

3. He saw. 

Present Perfect Tense, 

1. I have seen. 

2. Thou hast seen. 

3. He has seen. 



Plural. 

1. We saw. 

2. You saw. 

3. They saw. 



1. "We have seen. 

2. You have seen. 

3. They have seen. 



Past Perfect Tense. 




1. I had seen. 


1. We had seen. 


2. Thou hadst seen. 


2. You had seen. 


3. He had seen. 


3. They had seen. 


Future Tense, 




1. I shall see. 


1. "We shall see. 


2. Thou wilt see. 


2. You will see. 


3. He will see. 


3. They will see. 


Future Perfect Tense, 




1. I shall have seen. 


1. We shall have seen. 


2. Thou wilt have seen. 


2. You will have seen. 


3. He will have seen. 


3. They will have seen. 


Potential Mood. 




Present Tense, 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I may see. 


1. We may see. 


2. Thou mayst see. 


2. You may see. 


3. He may see. 


3. They may see. 


Past Tense, 




1. I might see. 


1. We might see. 


2. Thou mightst see. 


2. You might see. 


3. He might see. 


3. They might see 



Present Perfect Tense, 

1. I may have seen. 1. We may have seca. 

2. Thou mayst have seen. 2, You may have seen. 

3. He may have seen. 3. They may have seen. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have seen. 1. We might have seen. 

2. Thou mightst have seen. 2. You might have seen. 

3. He might have seen. 3. They might have seen. 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I see. 

2. If thou see. 

3. If he see. 

1. If I saw. 

2. If thou saw. 

3. If he saw. 



Past Tense. 



Plural. 

1. If we see. 

2. If you see. 

3. If they see. 

1. If we saw. 

2. If you saw. 

3. If they saw. 



Imperative Mood. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 
See thou, or do thou see. 



Plural. 
See ye or you, or do you i 



Participles. 
Present, Seeing. Past, Seen. Past Perfect, Having seen. 



Form of Negation. 



419. A verb is conjugated negatively, by placiog the adverb "not" 
after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive and participles take 
the negative first ; as, 

Inf. — Not to love, Not to have loved. Ind. — I love not or I do not 
love, I loved not or I did not love, I have not loved, I had not loved, I 
shall not love, I shall not have loved. Pot. — I may, can, or must not 
love; I might, could, would, or should not love; I may, can, or must 
not have loved; I might, could, would, or should not have loved. 
Subj. — If I love not, If I loved not. Part. — Not loving, Not loved, 
Not having loved. 



verbs: conjugation, old form. 



149 



Form op Question. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative and potential 
moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliary ; as, 

Ind.— -Do I love? Did I love? Have I loved? Had I loved? Shall I 
love ? Shall I have loved ? Pot. — May, can, or must I love ? Might, 
could, would, or should I love? May, can, or must I have loved? Might, 
could, would, or should I have loved ? 

Form of Question with Negation. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the indicative 
and potential moods, by placing the nominative and the adverb " not " 
after the verb, or after the first auxiliary ; as, • 

Ind. — Do I not love? Did I not love? Have I not loved ? Had I not 
loved ? Shall I not love ? Shall I not have loved ? Pot. — May, can, of 
must I not love ? Might, could, would, or should I not love ? May, can, 
or must I not have loved ? Might, could, would, or should I not have 
loved? 

Verbs op the Old Form. 

420. The verbs of the old form are, very generally, called irregular. 
Either term can be used by the pupil. It is more strictly correct to speak 
of them as verbs of the old conjugation. 

Verbs of the old conjugation do not form their past tense 
and past participle by the addition of d, or ed, to the verb ; as, 

Pres. Past Past, or Past Part. 

Begin began begun 

Know knew known 

The following is a list of tho verbs of the old conjugation: 



Present 


Past 


Past, or Part 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Am, or be 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke, R 


awaked 


Bear, to "bring forth 


bore 


born 


Bear, to carry 


bare 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bent, R 


bent 


Bereave 


bereft, R 


bereft, R 



150 




ENGLISH GRAMM 


: ae. 


Present 




Past 


Past Part 


Bereave 




bereft, R 


bereft, R 


Beseech 




besought 


besought 


Bid 




bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Bind 




bound 


bound, bounden 


Bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bled 


Blow 




blew 


blown 


Break 




broke, brake 


broken 


Breed 




bred 


bred 


Bring 




brought 


brought 


Build 




built, R 


built, R 


Burst 




burse 


burst 


Buy 




bought 


bought 


Cast 




cast 


cast 


Catch 




caught 


caught 


Chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 




chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to stick, ) 
or adhere, > 


clave, R 


R 


Cleave, to 


split 


clove or cleft 


cleft, cloven 


Cling 




clung 


clung 


Clothe 




clothed, clad 


clad, r 


Come 




came 


come 


Cost 




cost 


cost 


Crow 




crew 


. crowed, R 


Creep 




crept 


crept 


Cut 




cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, r, to challenge 






Deal 




dealt, R 


dealt, R 


Die 




died 


dead, r 


Dig 




dug, R 


dug, R 


Do 




did 


done 


Draw 




drew 


drawn 


Dream 




dreamt, R 


dreamt, R 


Drive 




drove 


driven 


Drink 




drank 


drunk 


Dwell 




dwelt, r 


dwelt, R 


Eat 




eat or ate 


eaten 


Fall 




fell 


fallen 


Feed 




fed 


fed 



verbs: 


CONJUGATION, 


OLD FORM. 


Present 


Past. 


Past Part 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forget 


forgot, forgat 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freight 


freighted 


fraught, R 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


gat 


gotten, got 


Gild 


gilt, r 


gilt, R 


Gird 


girt, R 


girt, R 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, R 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung, r 


hung, R 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove, R 


heaved, R 


Help 


helped 


holpen, r 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, r 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold 


held 


held, holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


knelt, R 


knelt, r 


Knit 


knit, R 


knit, R 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay- 


laid 


laid 


Lead 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain 


Light 


lit, R. 


lit, r 


Load 


loaded, ladod 


laden, R 



151 



232 



a N Q L I a U OBAUMAU, 



Present. 


Past 


Past Part 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, R 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Pen 


pent, R 


pent 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit, R 


quit, R 


Bead 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Kid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


rode, or ridden 


Ring 1 


rung, rang 


rung 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Seethe 


sod, R 


sodden, R 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, r 


Shear 


sheared, shore 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone 


shone, R 


Shew 


shewed 


shewn 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank, 


shrunk, shrunken 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk, sunKen 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 



verbs: conjugation. 


OLD FORM. 


Present. 


Past 


Past Part 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit, R 


slit, or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow- 


sowed 


sown, r 


Speak 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spell 


spelt, r 


spelt, r 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R 


spilt, R 


Spin 


spun, span 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spitten 


Split 


split 


split, R 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stink 


stank, stunk 


stunk 


Strew 


strewed 


strewn 


Stride 


strode 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck or stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strow 


strowed 


strown, r 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat, r 


sweat, R 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, R 


Swim 


swum, swam 


swum 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Take 


to<5k 


taken 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve, R 


thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust . . 


thrust 



153 



7* 



154 

Pr esnt. 

Tread 

Wax 

"Wear 

"Weave 

Weep 

Whet 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 



The verbs which are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly, are 
marked with an R. 

421. Defective Verbs are those which are used only in some of their 
moods and tenses. The principal of them are these : 



ENGLISH 


GRAMMAR. 


Post 


Past Part 


trod 


trodden, trod. 


waxed 


waxen, r 


wore 


worn 


wove 


woven 


wept 


wept 


whet, r 


whet, r 


won 


won 


wound 


wound 


wrought, r 


wrought or worked 


wrung 


wrung 


wrote 


written 



Present 

Beware 

Can 

May 

Shall 

Will 

Must 

Ought 

Wist 
Wit 



Past 

beware 

could 

might 

should 

would 

must 

ought 

quoth 

wist 

wot 



Past Part 



That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past significa- 
tion, appears from the following sentences: "I must own that I am to 
blame.' 7 "He must have been mistaken." "Speaking things which 
they ought not." K These ought ye to have done." 

In most languages there are some verbs which are defective with re- 
spect to persons. These are denominated impersonal verbs. They are 
used only in the third person, because they refer to a subject peculiarly 
appropriated to that person; as, "It rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, 
it thunders." 



A verb is parsed by giving its Divisions, (by sense or use ;) its Conju- 
gation, (old or modern;) the leading parts for the Conjugation; its Voice, 



verbs: practice in parsing. 155 

Mood, Tense, Number and Person, and by applying the required Rule of 
Syntax. 

The Rules of Syntax to be applied, are the 1st, 2d, 3d, 8th, 11th, 
13th and 14th. 

422. Tlie second part of the ninth attainment in language consists in 
ability to distinguish and define the parts of speech, with specifications for 
all, including the verb. 

Directions. — Begin with Logical Analysis ; define by Analytic, and 
apply Rules by Synthetic Syntax. 

The definitions are to be given: 1, generally; 2, normally or abnor- 
mally ; 3, specifically for all, including the verb. 

The Rules of Syntax are to be given : 1, generally ; 2, normally or 
abnormally, and in abnormal use Ellipsis is to be noted. Note that 
Rules of Syntax are not yet to be given, specifically. 

As examples were given fully under the first part of the ninth at- 
tainment, for all specifications except those for the verb, they need not 
be repeated here. 

An example for the verb will alone be expanded. 

Example for Parsing. 

"Death leads men out of this world, for the most part, with their 
heels forward." 

Leads, i3 a verb, used normally, by sense, active ; by use, transitive ; 
in voice, active ; in conjugation, of the old form, usually called irregular, 
from lead, led, led; in mood, indicative; in tense, present; in number, 
singular ; in person, third. 

Definitions. 

Gen. — A verb is the word in a sentence which unites the whole sen- 
tence, and asserts existence or action, always of a subject, and with or 
without an object. 

This word asserts action, and unites the sentence. Therefore, it is a 
verb. 

Use. — It is used normally, because used in its accustomed office. 

Spec. — 1. By sense, an active verb expresses action. This verb ex- 
presses action. Therefore, by sense, it is active. (365.) 

2. By use, a Transitive Verb has a substantive for its object (367.) 
This has a substantive for its object, the substantive, men. Therefore, 
the verb is, by use, transitive. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In the Active "Voice, the subject and object are separated. In 
this case they are separated, death, being the subject, and men, the ob- 
ject. Therefore, it is in the active voice. 

4. In the old conjugation, the verb changes the vowel of the present, 
to form the other tenses (409, 3.) This changes the vowel for the past, 
in lead, led, led, (Test, 421.) It is, therefore, of the old conjugation, 
commonly called irregular. 

5. The Indicative Mood is that which simply declares. This simply 
declares that death leads. Therefore, the mood is indicative, (385.) 

6. Tense expresses time, (394;) and the present tense, present time 
(391.) This expresses neither past nor future time, and, therefore, pre- 
sent. Its present time is also shown by the addition of s, as we know 
from the table of conjugation, and the rules for forming the simple 
tenses (414, 1.) The tense is thus seen to be present. 

*7. The number of the verb agrees with the number of its subject. 
Death, the subject, is in the singular number. Therefore, leads, is in the 
singular number, (Rule 2, of Syntax.) It is also shown to be singular 
by the table of conjugations, and by the rules for forming simple tenses, 
(414,1.) 

8. The person of the verb agrees with the person of the subject. The 
subject is in the third person, because spoken of. Therefore, the verb is 
in the third person. This is also proved by the tables of conjugation, 
and by the rules for forming the simple sentences, (414, 1.) 

In this manner is the verb to be parsed, analytically. 

The rules of Syntax are to be applied as in the first part of the ninth 
attainment. 



syntax: synthetic, specifically. 157 



CHAPTER VII. 

Synthetic Syntax: Specifically. 

423. The next subject is that of the Rules of Synthetic Syntax Spe- 
cifically. It only repeats and unfolds what has been given. 

As the Parts of Speech were regarded generally and specifically, so is 
it with these Rules. 

By their being treated specifically is meant, that the general rule is 
applied to the specific cases presented in the correct use of the English 
language. 

If there be any not stated, they are yet covered by the general 
rules. 

It is better to leave details of minor importance to the observation of 
learners through life, than to confuse the mind and burden the memory. 

"What are usually called exceptions have been included under abnor- 
mal use, and will not reappear. 

In applying general rules to particular cases, one principle will be 
found to reign everywhere supreme. 

It is, that the sense intended is always the guide. 

Accordingly, the general Rules of Syntax, already given, will be re- 
peated. Under each will be given Special Rules, if they are required. 
With these will be joined observations and explanations, not to tax the 
memory, but to elucidate the reason of the rule. These will be found 
to repeat the same idea, perpetually, that the reason of the rule is not 
in the caprices of usage, but in the sense op the sentence. 

424. Let the pupil and instructor keep in mind the cardinal principles. 
Eight pieces of work are to be done in sentences, and, with the article, 
nine. There are nine parts of speech, like servants, to do them. When 
each does his own work, only, the use is normal, when other than hia 
own, the use is abnormal. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RULES OF SYNTAX: SPECIFICALLY. 

I. Subjective Combination. 

Predicative, 

Euls 1. — A substantive, the subject of a finite verb, 
is in the nominative case to the verb ; as, " Men are 
mortal." 

Obs. — By a finite verb is meant a verb normally used. It is normally 
used, and limited to its proper office in the indicative, potential, subjunc- 
tive, and imperative moods. In these, it is also limited by person, and 
number. So limited, it is called finite. A verb is a&normally used in the 
infinitive, and participle. It is there not limited to its proper office, nor 
limited by person and number (390, 6). 

Special Rules. 

1. The subject of a finite verb may be any form of language 
which can be made subject to the assertion of a verb. It may 
be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, a participle, used as 
a noun, or a sentence, or part of a sentence. 

2. Every finite verb has a nominative case expressed, or 
understood; as, "Awake!" "Arise !" that is, "Awake ye. 11 
"Arise 2/e." 

The imperative mood agrees with a nominative of the sec- 
ond person, usually understood. 

3. Every subject, in the nominative case, belongs to some 
verb expressed, or understood. 

Eule 2. — A finite verb agrees with its subject or 
nominative in number and person. 



syntax: specifically: rule ii. 159 



Special Rules. 

1. The number of the verb is determined by the sense 
intended by the speaker, and not by the form of the subject. 
Hence, 

(a.) A collective noun, designed to express many, as one, has a verb 
in the singular; as, "The assembly vjas numerous." 

(6.) A collective noun, expressing many, as individuals, has a verb in 
the plural ; as, " My people do not consider." 

(c.) A noun, singular in form, but plural in sense, has a verb in the 
plural ; as, "Twenty sail are in the offing." 

(d.) A noun, plural in form, but singular in sense, has a verb in the 
singular, by sense, or in the plural, by analogy, according to the taste 
of the speaker; as, "The news is important;" or, "The news are im- 
portant." "The means is found;" or, "The means are found." 

Obs. (1.) It will be shown under Rule 3d, that when a verb comes be- 
tween two nouns, either of which may be understood, as the subject of 
the assertion, that it may agree with one or other, according to the sense 
intended ; as, " His meat was locusts and wild honey." " The wages of 
sin is death." 

It will be shown under Rule 17 th, that two or more substantives, 
taken together, have a verb in the plural ; taken separately, a verb in 
the singular, the sense always determining; as, "The king and the 
queen are in the next village." "The king or queen is to receive the 
address." 

2. The person of the verb, where there are two or more 
subjects of different persons, is determined by the view of the 
speaker, and by the Ellipsis supplied. 

In such cases, the Ellipsis supplied will be either a verb for each of 
the subjects without one, or a noun in apposition with them, usually the 
latter. 

"I or William is right." The Ellipsis to be supplied, is "am" after 
"I," or "one of us" after " "William." "One " represents the two sub- 
jects, and is in apposition with them. 

"James, and thou, and I, are attached to our country." The Ellipsis 
to be supplied is " we all." " We" is in apposition with the three sub- 
jects, and represents them. "Thou, and he, and I, (we all) are ready 
for our work." "Thou, and they, (both of you) are to take the burden 
between you." 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. "Wliere the verb expressed is grossly unsuited to the 
subjects, it is a barbarism, and the form of expression must be 
changed. 

e.g.: "George or I am the person." It is a barbarism, because so 
nearly like " George am the person." Say: " George is the person, or I 
(am)." Or make "person" the nominative; as, "The person is — George 
or I." 

This barbarism may be defended as syntactical. It may be said that 
the Ellipsis to be supplied is the verb " is " after " George." But so we 
may defend such expressions as, "I am going to home." "I am going 
for to go to home." These are strictly syntactical. But the moment 
we hear them, we feel that they are barbarous. Though syntactical, 
they are not grammatical, since in Grammar, we follow not only Syntax, 
but usage, and with usage, good taste. 

Obs. — The rules just laid down are considered far preferable to those 
which are given by Murray, and some grammarians who follow him ; viz.: 
"When substantives, taken separately, are of different persons, the verb 
agrees with the one next to it." Such barbarism then follows for exam- 
ple, as "I, or thou, art to blame." 

We are thus freed from the arbitrary rule, for which no reason is 
given, which only confuses the learner with an exception, based on no 
analogy, and no principle, that, when subjects are of different persons, 
the first is preferred to the second, and the second to the third. 

The rule given is simple, rational, and harmonious with the principles 
of language. We look to the sense and usage. We supply Ellipsis ac 
according to the sense. Expressions not consonant with the sense, el- 
lipsis, and usage, we reject as incorrect. 

Kule 3. — The substantive verb "to be," or any verb 
used like it, as a copula, takes the same case after as be- 
fore it ; the substantive after being a predicate to the 
former; or, 

Copulative verbs may take the same case after as be- 
fore them; as, " Oaks are trees " 
Special Rules. 

1. The copulative verb may be finite, or it may be an in- 
finitive or participle. 



syntax: specifically: rule iv. 161 

If it be finite, and its subjects are of different numbers, or 
persons, or both, it may agree with one or other, according to 
sense and usage. 

As, "The wages of sin is death." " They were appointed a com- 
mittee." "It&L" 

If it be in the infinitive or participle, the copulative effect 
of the verb still remains, and makes the same case to come 
after as before it. 

e.g. : " I knew him to be a native." " Him," being in the objective 
case, "native," is in the objective, also. "His being a native was an 
advantage." " His," being possessive, " native "is also in the possess- 
ive case. The subject of the verb is the phrase, " His being a native J1 

Eule 4. — Substantives, in apposition, agree in case ; 
as, "Cicero, the orator, was consul" "I knew him, the 
statesman, the warrior, the sage" " This was said of 
Napoleon, the conqueror, and arbiter of Europe. 

Special Rules. 

1. Of substantives, in apposition, one is considered principal, 
and the other, or others, as explanatory. 

In the example given, "Cicero " is principal; "orator," explanatory. 

2. The position of the substantives, as given by logical 
analysis, determines whether they are in apposition, by rule 4th, 
or whether one is predicate to the other, by rule 3d. 

(a.) When the principal, and explanatory terms, are on the same side 
of the copula (i. e. verb), whether as subjects, or as objects, they are in 
apposition. In the examples, there are in apposition, " Cicero, "== "orator"; 
" hi m,"=" statesman," "warrior," "sage." 

(b.) When these terms are on opposite sides of the copula, one is a 
predicate to the other. In the example, "consul" is a predicate to 
"Cicero," and "orator," in apposition. But if "Cicero, the consul, was 
an orator" should be the sentence, "orator" would be the predicate, and 
" consul " in apposition. 

3. A substantive is any form of language which can re- 
ceive the assertion of a verb. The modes of apposition are 
as numerous as the combinations possible under substantives. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hence, there may be : 



t?3 



1. Noun, 

2. Adjective, as Noun, 

3. Pronoun, 

4. Infinitive, 

5. Participle, 

6. Sentence, 

7. Phrase, 



1. Noun, 

2. Adjectivey-as- Noun, 

3. Pronoun, 

4. Infinitive, 

5. Participle, 

6. Sentence, 
T. Phrase, 



fc * 

si* 



e.</. : " The promise that he should be the heir of the world, was not 
to Abraham through the law." In this sentence, 

" Promise "=■" That he should be the heir of the world," 

there is a noun in apposition with a sentence. It is the combination of 
1, in the first list, (Principal,) with 6 in the second list, (Explanatory.) 

e.g. : "Houses, woods, income, all were squandered by the spend- 
thrift." In this sentence, 

"Houses, woods, income, "m&AM,* 

there is an adjective used as a noun, in apposition with three nouns. It 
is the combination of 2, in one list, (Principal,) with 1, in the other, 
(Explanatory.) - 

e.g. : "It is pleasant and glorious to die for our country." In this sen- 
tence, 

" It »'«■" to die for our country," 

there is a pronoun in apposition with a phrase. It is the combination 
of 3, in the first list (Principal), with 1, in the second (Explanatory). 

e. g. : "They speak vanity, every one with his neighbour." "Tliey love 
one another" " They were so crowded, that they stood in each others* 
way." " Ye are one another's joy." 

In these sentences, "They," (collectively)—" every one," (multiplied 
separately); "They," (being two)—' j \\ u^ther"}' " The ^" ^ 
ing many)- { \ IgJ^,, \; -Ye," (collectively)-] \ "*£^» \ 
(multiplied separately,) there is the combination of 3, and 2. 

In parsing such examples, Ellipsis must be supplied. In the first sen- 
tence, we may supply a case independent with a participle, or make a 
new sentence, with a verb used normally; as, " They speak vanity, every 



syntax: specifically: rule v. 163 

one speaking with his neighbour." or "They speak vanity: every one 
speaks with his neighbour." 

"They love one another. "—" They love; one (loves) the other," or 
"They love; one (loving) the other." 



Subjective Combination. 

Attributive, 

Eule 5. — Adjectives qualify substantives as predi- 
cates after the verb, and as epithets near the substantive ; 
as, " Flowers are perishable" "A perishable flower 
blooms." 

Words commonly used as adjectives, are often used as substantives. 

Special Rules. 

Special Rules for adjectives apply to the distinction of the predi- 
cate from the epithet, and of the adjective from the adverb : to number 
and to degree. 

(a.) The Distinction of the Predicate from the. Epithet 

1. The position of the Adjective, as given by Logical 
Analysis, determines whether it is a predicate or an epithet. 

If the adjective be on the same side of the copula with its substan- 
tive, it is an epithet, but if not, it is a predicate. In the example, 
" Flowers are perishable" it is a predicate ; in ^Perishable flowers bloom," 
it is an epithet. In both, it qualifies " Flowers." 

This rule is similar to that just given for distinguishing a substantive 
in apposition, under Rule 4th, from the substantive as a predicate under 
Rule 3d. 

(&.) The Distinction of the Adjective from the Adverb. 

2. The sense intended by the speaker, distinguishes the ad* 
jective from the adverb, when both are of the same form. If 

4 the word in question be connected, by the sense, to the sub' 
btantive, it is an adjective; if to the verb, an adverb. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

e.g.: " Our friend was ill. but is now well.' 1 "Well" and "ill" are, 
in this sentence, adjectives, because referred, by the sense, to the substan- 
tive, "friend." 

" Our friend intended well, but acted ill." ""Well" and "ill" are, in 
this sentence, adverbs, because referred, by the sense, to the verbs "in* 
tended" and "acted." 

3. As the sense determines and distinguishes, it is incorrect 
to use an adjective for an adverb, or an adverb for an adjective. 

e. g.: " He writes beautiful." This is incorrect. The form of the ad- 
verb should be used, because the verb is modified. It should be, of 
course, " He writes beautifully" "He behaved excellent well." "Well" 
is modified by " excellent." The form of the adverb should be used, and 
the expression should be, "He behaved excellently well." "The stream 
grows rapid." This is correct, because " rapid " is connected by sense to 
the substantive "stream," and is thus an adjective. "The stream rises 
rapid." This is incorrect. It should be, " The stream rises rapidly" be- 
cause, by the sense, the verb is modified. 

(c.) Number, 

4. Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree in 
number with their substantives, and the verbs with the sub- 
stantives ; as, "This man; these men" " Forty pounds" not 
"pound." "Each man is present." 

Obs. — The principle that guides usage here, is the same with that 
given in the first Special Rule, under the 2d Rule of Syntax. 

The number used is determined by the sense of the speaker, and not 
by the form of the word. Hence : 

(1.) A collective noun, when designed to express many, as one, has 
an adjective in the singular ; but when as many, in the plural ; as, "This 
people does not consider." "These people do not consider." 

(2.) A noun, singular in form, but plural in sense, has an adjective in 
the plural ; as, "Tliese twenty sail are in the offing." 

(3.) A noun, plural in form, but singular in sense, may have an adjec- 
tive in the singular, by sense, or in the plural, by analogy; as, "This 
news is sad," or, "These news are sad." "I prevailed by this means," 
or, "I prevailed by these means." 

(<£) Degree. 

The use of the comparative and superlative, requires a recollection of 
a part of the definition of language (2). It arranges objects in classes. 



syntax: specifically: rule yi. 165 

5. The superlative degree applies to the comparison of one 
with many in a class ; of unity with plurality ; the compara- 
tive, to that of one object or class with another; of unity 
with unity. 

e. g. : "Long John was the tallest man of my company." "He was 
taller than Jones," 

Obs. (1.) It is, therefore, more strictly correct to use the comparative, 
when we compare two objects only, than it is to use the superlative ; as, 
" Of two evils, choose the lesser." " Of the two, he is the better man." 
"Lesser" and "better" are more consonant with the principles of the 
language, than " least" and "best." 

(2.) When a class is used, there may be a comparative form, but a su- 
perlative sense; as, "He was taller than the rest of the company. "■*■" He 
was the tallest of the company." Degree is here used abnormally, but 
not ungramatically. 

(3.) The superlative includes itself in the class ; the comparative ex- 
cludes itself from the class. "We can say, " This oak is the oldest of all 
these trees," but not " This oak is older than all these trees." When the 
"oak" is one of them, the expression must be "th&n the rest of these 
trees," "than the others," or something equivalent, so as to exclude the 
comparative. 

(4.) If there be, inversely, a superlative form, but a comparative sense, 
degree is again used abnormally, but not ungrammatically, e.g.: "Of 
two evils choose the least" The sense is comparative ; the form, super- 
lative. It is not ungrammatical, but is abnormal. The more accurate 
and correct expression, as has been stated, is, "Of two evils choose the 
lesser" 

(5.) In sentences which only appear to deviate from rule, Ellipsis must 
oe supplied to bring them under rule. e. g. : "It is like a grain of mus- 
tard seed, which, when it is sown in the earth, is less than all the seeds 
hat be in the earth. 77 

Supply "other" before seeds, and the sense is given, and the rule 
Observed. 



Rule 6. — Articles reduce their substantives from a 
general to a particular signification ; as, "A man f "the 
man;" "the men." 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Special Rules. 

1. The Article a, or an, is attached to substantives, in the 
singular number, used indefinitely ; as, "An apple." 

2. The Article the, is attached to substantives, in the sin- 
gular or plural, used definitely; as, "The stars;" "The moon." 

Rule 7. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other 
adverbs; as, "He flies swiftly;" "His flight was very 
remarkably swift." 

Special Rules. 

1. In other languages, two negatives in the same sentence 
may increase the negation, but in English they destroy one 
another, and form an affirmation; as, "He is not a wow-com- 
batant,'^" He is a combatant." 

But, even in English, mere repetition, for emphatic expression, strength- 
ens the negation ; as, " I will never, never leave you." " He has no, no 
strength left in him." 

2. In the use of Abverbs, those expressing motion to or 
from a place, must be distinguished from those which express 
rest in a place. 

For example: 

Either means motion to this place. 



Here 

Thither 

There 

Whither 

Where 

Hence 

Thence 



rest in " " . 

motion to that " . 

rest in " " . 

motion to a " spoken of. 
rest in " " " " 

motion from this ' ' . 

" that" . 



If we use the adverbs of motion, it is unnecessary to use the preposi- 
tion "to," or "from," because they are already implied in the words. 
We may say, " Hence it follows," not "From hence it follows." This is 
always correct, unless, for emphasis, we wish to repeat the preposition 



syntax: specifically: rule viii. 167 

already implied; as, "From thence they fetched a compass." "From 
whence come wars and fightings among you ?" 

Obs. — The parsing of such expressions as "Since when?" "From 
where ?" " He has gone from there." " He has left there," though they are 
conversational forms, can be understood by the principles already given. 
Apply substitution. When=^what time. Where«what place. There=» 
that place. 

"Since" is a preposition, governing the substantive "time," repre- 
sented by "when;" and "when," as used for the substantive, is gov- 
erned by the preposition "since." "From," is a preposition governing 
"where" and "there." " Where" and "there" are used for the sub- 
stantive "place," which they represent. The transitive verb "left," 
governs "there;" and "there" is used for the substantive which it re- 
presents, and is governed by " left." 



426. II. Objective Combination. 

Eule 8. — A transitive verb governs substantives, 

which are its objects, in the objective case ; as, " The 

sun warms the earth." 

It should ever be recollected that the term " substantive," as used in 
this work, is general, and includes nouns, pronouns, infinitives, partici- 
ples, clauses, sentences. 

Special Rules. 

In applying this rule, we are guided, as in others, by the sense, and 
not by the form. 

By abnormal use there may be an intransitive form, but a transitive 
sense : and a transitive form, (rarely) with a intransitive sense : also, there 
may be a passive form, without a passive sense. 

A transitive verb, in sense, is known by its requiring for its govern- 
ment, a substantive as its object, in the objective case. Such a verb does 
not need a preposition after it to govern the object which it already 
governs. Hence, 

1. Intransitive verbs, used abnormally, in a transitive sense, 
may govern a substantive in the objective case; as, "I 
dreamed a dream." " He lived a life of usefulness." "Walk the 
horse to the water." They may also give the passive voice in 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

form, but not strictly in sense ; as, "My race is run. 11 "My dream 
is dreamed. 11 The strict passive would be "I am run.' 7 

These passive forms can be parsed, by abnormal use ; or the participle 
may be parsed as an adjective in the predicate. The latter is better. 

(1.) Intransitive verbs are mostly thus used transitively when there is 
gome repetition involved. The repetition may be, 1, of the verb, by 
giving the same sense with the verb to the object; as, "To run a race." 
"To live a life." It may be, 2, of the subject, thus forming what is usu- 
ally called, in other languages, a reflective verb ; as, " It repenteth we, 
that I have made them." (i Flee thee away into the land of Judah." 

This use of reflectives belongs to the whole family of the Indo-Euro- 
pean languages; passes into the Gothic family; thence, through the 
Saxon, into the English. Naturally, it belongs to the more ancient 
usage of the language, and is fast becoming obsolete. But the censures 
of grammarians on such expressions, the present state of philology 
condemns. 

(2.) Expressions, passive in form, but not in sense, are derived from 
the same source. In the Gothic family of languages, some verbs are 
conjugated with the auxiliary "to have," and some with "to be." In 
the older forms of English, this custom was retained, and has not be- 
come obsolete. 

e. g. : " I am come." " I was gone." " I am grown." " I was fallen." 
" What is the cause, wherefore ye are come." We may substitute "have" 
and say, "I have come." "I had gone." "I have grown." " I had fallen." 
"What is the cause, wherefore ye have come." But a part of the sense 
is thus lost. The idea is that of a state, or condition, and not of a mo- 
mentary act. The verb " to be " expresses a state, as the verb "to have" 
cannot. Such forms are needed, accordingly, for expressiveness. 

In parsing such expressions as "am come" take the two words to- 
gether, as one verb, and call it a verb, used abnormally, passive in form, 
but not in sense. 

2. A verb, intransitive in both form and sense, does not 
take the objective case; as, "He walks." "He waits." 

Substantives, which are objects in a sentence, whose verb is intransi- 
tive, require a preposition expressed or understood; as, u He waits for you." 

Substitution must be applied when an intransitive verb would be in- 
correct; as, " He grows apples." This is incorrect. Substitute "raise" 
or " cultivate " : as, " He raises apples." 

3. A verb, transitive in both form and sense, does not ad- 
mit a preposition before its object. 



syntax: specifically: rule ix. 169 

If a preposition be admitted, the verb ceases to be transitive ; as, " I 
will not allow of it." " Of" is to be erased; as, " I will not allow it." 

4. The passive voice must take for its subject the object of 
the correspondent transitive verb. 

e. g. : (Transitive) " They offered a book to me." (Passive) "A book 
was offered to me." It would be incorrect to say " I was offered a book." 

Obs. — The passive form often takes, by abnormal use, the function of 
a copulative verb. See Rule 3d. e.g.: "They named him Emperor." 
"He — was named — Emperor." 

5. A transitive verb may govern two substantives in the 
objective, where the supply of Ellipsis would not furnish a pre- 
position, or where the two are not in apposition. 

This rule is derived from the great family to which the English be- 
longs, and results from the fact that a transitive active verb may have 
two objects, one immediate, and one remote. In English, it is applied, 
mostly, to infinitives; as, "I told you to go." 

6. The verb "let" governs the objective case. 

7. A neglect of the objective in relatives must be carefully 
avoided, as a prevalent and pestilent error ; as, " Whom did 
you see?" not "Who did you see?" "Whom did he marry?" 
not "Who did he marry?" 



Rule 9. — A preposition governs substantives, which 
are its objects, in the objective case, and connects them 
by relations to the verb, or to some other word in the 
sentence ; as, "Science enlightens the minds of men." 

Obs. In parsing, the relation need not be stated, unless to bring out 
some important idea, but simply the government. Views of relations, 
will be found almost as various as the minds of pupils and instructors. 

Special Rules. 

1. Prepositions are frequently understood, and in parsing 
must be restored by the supply of Ellipsis. 

e.g. (1.) After the adjective, "like," the preposition "to," is under* 
stood, and requires the objective case; as, "He acts like ra*v'= u He 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

acts like to me;" not, "He acts like /did." If there be two sentences, 
there must be, of course, a conjunction; " He acts as I did." 

(2.) After near and nigh, and after many verbs, as teach, give, go, offer, 
promise, pay, tell, allow, deny, and some others, the preposition "to," is 
understood; as, " Give me a book, "=" Give to me a book." 

(3.) After "ask," "of" is understood; as, "He asked me this ques- 
tion, "=" He asked of me this question." 

(4.) After "wish," "to" or "for," are understood; as, "I wish him 
prosperity, "=" I wish to him prosperity." 

(5.) Before many substantives in the category of Quantity, as those 
of Time, Value, Weight, and Measure, prepositions are understood, 
with or without a substantive expressing Quantity ; as, " He was absent 
five days,"*-*" He was absent during five days." "The pole was ten feet 
long, "— " The pole was long to the extent of ten feet;" or, simply, "To 
ten feet." (243, 10.) 

2. Prepositions inappropriate to the words and phrases be- 
fore them, must not be used; as, "The latter is exclusive of 
the former," not "From the former." " Confide in me." 



Rule 10. — A substantive, in the possessive case, is 
governed by the substantive possessed, or through sub- 
stitution, by a preposition understood ; as, "Peterh 
house ;"=" The house of Peter P 

This rule requires no farther observations than those already made. 



427. III. Representative Combination. 

Rule II. — One part of speech may be represented 
by another, and one used in the office of another. 

Obs. 1. Representation prevails throughout language. Thus, a pronoun 
represents a noun. An interjection represents a verb, with or without 
other words. A relative represents its antecedent. The relative, 
" what," ncludes, as well as represents its antecedent. This principle is 
applied to pronouns in the next Rule, the 12th. 



syntax: specifically: rule xii. 171 

2. When the same word performs the office of two or more parts of 
speech, there is abnormal use. This principle is applied to the Infinitive 
and Participle, in the 13th and 14th Rules of Syntax. 

3. When a word usually employed in the office of one part of speech, 
is employed in that of another, there is abnormal use. This transfer of 
functions belongs to every part of speech, and is applied to prepositions 
in the 15 th Rule of Syntax, 



Eule 12. — Pronouns agree in person and number, 
with the substantives which they represent, and which 
are called their antecedents ; as, " The men came with 
dust on them. 11 " The Lord whom ye seek, shall suddenly 
come to His temple." This agreement usually extends 
to gender, also, where there is but one antecedent. 

Special Rules. 

L The agreement, in gender, of pronouns and their ante- 
cedents, is general, but not universal ; as, "Each of the sexes 
is to keep its appropriate sphere." Where there are several 
antecedents of different genders, agreement in gender, by one 
pronoun, is impossible. 

2. "When the antecedent is a collective noun, designed to 
express many as one, the pronoun must agree with it in the 
singular ; but when designed to express many, as individuals, 
in the plural; as, "The Board was divided in its sentiments." 
" The Board were divided in their sentiments." 

3. "When a pronoun has for its antecedents two or more sub- 
stantives taken together, so as to give a plural sense, it agrees 
with them in the plural number ; but in the singular, when 
those antecedents are taken separately, and have a singular 
sense ; as, " Father, mother, child, threw themselves into the 
ocean from the burning ship." Here, no conjunctions are ex- 
pressed, but the sense is pluial. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The plural sense is usually given by the conjunction, " and ;" 
the singular, by " or," "nor," with their reciprocals, expressed 
or understood ; as, " "When attraction and repulsion are equal, 
they neutralize each other." " "When either force or law pre- 
vails, it makes government. When force and law are well 
combined, they make good government. Where it is neither 
force nor law which prevails, there is anarchy." 

There may be the same sense with the conjunctions under- 
stood, wholly or in part, or with a substitution giving the same 
sense ; as, " Yalor, courtesy, modesty, threw their lustre on 
him." 

" Not the danger, not the tumult, the murderous fire, the exploding 
mine, was that which he feared." 

The sense is here, neither the one wor>'the other was that which he 
feared. Yet the conjunctions do not appear. 

4. When each, every, either, neither are attached to the sub- 
stantives, the pronoun is in the singular number, by the sense, 
although the conjunction "and," may be between them. 

The reason is, that they are distributives, meaning one of a class ; and 
the conjunction does not really connect the substantives, but the sen- 
tences; as, 

" Every theory of a social contract, and every treatise, and every 
magazine, and every lecture, which teaches that the individual is above 
society, is pernicious under any settled government. It sanctifies re- 
bellion, but not obedience." 

In all these rules, the same principle will be observed which is given 
in all like cases : sense determines use. 

5. A relative pronoun performs both the office of a con- 
junction, by uniting two sentences; and that of a substantive, 
by being a subject or object ; 

As, "The book which you bought is here." " Which," as a pronoun, 
is governed by the verb "bought." As a conjunction, it unites the two 
sentences. 

Consequently, when we have such expressions in the old style of 
English, as whereof, wherewith, thereof, therewith, we may parse them in 
two ways. 

As one, we may restore the relative, by substitution ; as the other, we 
may regard them as adverbial conjunctions. 



syntax: specifically: parsing. 173 

By substitution : 

Whereof =* of where =* of which. 
Wherewith — with where == with which. 
Thereof = of there = of that. 
Therewith — with there = with that. 
Thereupon = upon there — upon that. 
e.g. : " Let them be as the grass, wherewith the mower filleth not his 
hand." 

Here may be abnormal use, in the word " wherewith," which requires 
the change of substitution. (236.) 

Wherewith = with which the mower. ... By this view, the word 
is composed of a relative pronoun, and a preposition, and may be parsed 
accordingly. 

Or, without substitution, we may parse the word as uniting two sen- 
tences. This makes it a conjunction. (Test of Rule 11th.) 

The reason is plain by the Rule. A relative performs the office of a 
pronoun and a conjunction. By the latter mode of parsing, we disre- 
gard the first; and, of course, must take the last. 

Directions. — In parsing relatives, let the learner always 

draw them out in tabular form, till he has become familiar with 

their use, according to the following example : 

" The man whom we saw has since died." 

( Sentence : "The man has since died." 
1. ANTECEDENT=~ u ifa?z;" < Word : Man, nominative to died, by 
( Rule 1st. 









••I 1 



Sentence: " We saw whom." 
2. Relative^" W7wm;"-{ Word: Whom, objective after saw, 

by Rule 8th. 



This process should be carefully and especially applied with all con- 
tracted relatives. 

Every contracted relative should be tabulated, till every difficulty is 
conquered, according to the following example : 

" These are what I wanted." 

Sent. : " These are the things." 
1. ANTECEDENT="jT/ie things;" \ Word : Things, predicate after 

are, by Rule 3d. 



73" 



( Sent. : "I wanted which." 

2. Relative«=" Which ;" •< Word : Which, objective after 

( wanted, by Rule 8 th. 

If the sense were singular, the antecedent would be that; or that thing. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule 13. — A verb in the infinitive mood is used as 
a substantive, under the rules for substantives, and as a 
verb under those rules for verbs which are not limited 
by the word, " finite ;" as, " To be good is to be happy." 

The infinitive is used for two parts of speech, under the 11th Rule. 

The infinitive is explained discordantly by different grammarians, and 
is usually an obscure subject to learners. 

The rule just given will be found to cover the conditions of the in- 
finitive, both in the English, and in other languages. 

By applying the rule for himself, the pupil can form a correct and 
complete view of the infinitive in his own mind, and without depend- 
ence on any other. 

Let him simply look along the Rules of Syntax, and see 
what are the rules for substantives, and what are the rules for 
verbs, not limited by the term " finite." Thus : 

The rules for substantives are 
The 1st., that a substantive may be a subject before a verb. 

" predicate after a copulative verb. 

" in apposition. 

" an object, after a transitive verb. 

" an object after a preposition. 

" in the case independent. 

Consequently, an infinitive may be : 

1. The subject of a verb; as, "To improve is pleasant." 

2. The predicate after a copulative verb ; as, " He is to go" 

3. In apposition; as, "His desire is to hear, to scoff, and to condemn." 

4. An object after a transitive verb ; as, " They wish to learn" 

5. An object after a preposition ; as, " He was about to depart" 

6. In the independent case ; as, " Oh 1 to fall, to die ! this is more than 
life!" 

The rules for verbs, not limited by the term " finite," are: 

The 3d., that a verb, copulative, takes the same case after as before it. 

The 8th., that a verb, transitive, governs a substantive in the objective 
case. 
Consequently, an infinitive, in its office as verb, may : 
1. As a copulative, take the same case after as before it ; as, " You 

thought Mm to be whom?" "Him," and " whom," are in the objective 

before and after " to be." 



The 3d, 


u n 


The 4th, 


n a 


The 8th, 


u it 


The 9th, 


it n 


The 19th, 


it (I 



syntax: specifically: recapitulation. 175 

2. As a transitive verb, govern a substantive in the objectivo ease ; as, 
"Ho has gone to call him." " Him," is governed by "to call." 

RECAPITULATION. 



The 

Infinitive - 
as 



Substantive «■ 
may be : 



1. A subject to a finite verb. 

2. A predicate. 

3. In apposition. 

4. An object for a transitive verb. 

5. An object for a preposition. 

6. In the independent case. 



Verb 



may: 



(1. Take the same case after as 
before it, (when copulative.) 
2. Govern a substantive, (when 
transitive.) 



These are the conditions of the infinitive, as shown by the application 
of Rule 13th. 

We are now prepared for 

Special Rules. 

1. The sign of the infinitive (which is to) is omitted after 
some verbs ; as, " I made him stay"= u I made him to .stay." 

(1.) The verbs which permit the omission, are make, see, 
hear, feel, need, (with the negative) bid, dare, let, with some 
others, such as have, observe, perceive ; as, " You need not go. 11 
" It is well to have a man's mind move under the rule of con- 
science." (390, 3.) 

(2.) The same omission is made where repetition is to be avoided ; as, 
" Do you wish to go or stay ;"«-"-or to stay." 
(3.) In parsing, this Ellipsis must be supplied, in whatever way it may 



2. The only government for the infinitive is the same as for 
any substantive, viz. : by a transitive verb, or by a preposition 
expressed or understood ; as, " I wish to go." " What went 
ye out to see ?" " What went ye out for to see ?" 

No such departure from all grammatical principle is allowable as to 
say, that an infinitive is governed by an adjective, or intransitive verb. 
It is grammatically impossible. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Whenever the verb of the sentence is intransitive, and 
the infinitive is under government as an object in the objective 
case, a preposition must be supplied, if not expressed. 

This preposition to be supplied, is, in English, "for," or some equiva- 
lent. 

The reason for this rule lies in the derivation of the English through 
the Saxon, from the Gothic family of languages, (159,) and in the fact 
that the law of structure in the English is drawn also from that family. 
(160.) 

In that family, the infinitives ended originally in n. " To sing," is in 
German, Singen; in Saxon, Singan. 

"When these verbs came to be used in English, it was found needful 
to drop the infinitive termination, n, and to substitute a particle before 
the verb. The particle selected was "to." Thus, instead of saying, "I 
love singan," or " I love sing," our ancestors said, " I love to sing." 

But whenever there was no transitive verb to govern this infinitive, 
they inserted the preposition "for," or some equivalent; as, "What 
went ye out for to see ?" 

In the course of time, this preposition came to be understood, and not 
expressed, just as "thou," is understood, but not expressed in the im- 
perative. We say, " Bring me a glass of water," but not "Bring thou to 
me a glass of water." " Thou " is understood. " To " is understood. 

But in parsing this preposition, left out by Ellipsis, but belonging to 
the old use, and required by the genius of the language, must be sup- 
plied; just as in parsing "bring," in the sentence just given, we must 
supply " thou ;" and in parsing " me," we must supply " to." 

In the sentence, "I am anxious to learn," the infinitive is governed 
by "for," understood. 

4. The particle "to," does not govern the infinitive. It is 
simply a part of the verb, as- much so as if it were in the 
body, or at the end of the verb. 

e. g. : To sing=*Saxon, Sing-a^ ; German, Sing-en. 

5. "When the verb of the sentence is transitive, and has 
two objects, of which the infinitive is one, that verb may be 
regarded as having two objectives, (Special Kule Syntax, un- 
der Eule 8th,) or a preposition may be supplied ; as, "I want 
you to stay." The verb "want," is transitive, and governs 
both "you" and "to stay;" or, "to stay," is governed by 
" for," understood. 



syntax: specifically: rulexiy. 177 

Tlio same process is to be applied as to all substantives, e.g. : Wa 
may parse the sentence, " Give me a book," by saying that " give " gov* 
ems two objectives ; or by saying that a preposition (to) is understood 
before "me." In like manner, we may parse "to stay," by the rule for 
two objectives, or by a preposition understood. 

Directions in Parsing the Infinitive: 

Till the learner is familiar with the infinitive, he should 
draw out, in tabular form, the parsing of any one that may be 
in his exercise. 



Infinitive, 

"To Leave,"- 

as, 



Infinitive, 

'To See," h 
as. 



e.g. : " He is about to leave me." 

Substantive, j ^ an ol^ec| governed by -about." 

Verb i is transitive ' an(i governs " me." 

1 ( Rule 8lh. 

" To see the painting is to praise the artist." 

Substantive i is a sabject of the verb "' l3 '" 
bUBSTANTiVE, -j nominative by Rule 1st. 

v^dtj 5 * s transitive ; and governs "paint- 

VERB> \ ing," by Rule 8th. 



Etjle 14. — Participles are used as adjectives, under 
the rules for adjectives, and as verbs, under those rules 
for verbs which are not limited by the term " finite." 
As adjectives, participles, like other adjectives, may be 
used as substantives ; as, " The man was driving a horse." 
"Fast driving is often dangerous." 

In the first example, " driving " is used as an adjective, a predicate 
qualifying " man," under Rule 5th, and as a transitive verb, governing 
4i horse," under Rule 8th. 

In the second example, it is used in the office of a substantive, subject 
of the verb " is," and in the nominative case by Rule 1st. ■ 

The same remarks apply here as under the infinitive. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

By applying the rule, the true theory of the participle, in the English, 
and in all languages, can be understood. 

The same word is used in the offices of three parts of speech, by Rule 
11th, viz. : of the verb, adjective, and substantives. 

In the office of adjectives, the rule applied to participles is the 5th ; 
consequently, a participle in the office of an adjective, may qualify a 
substantive as predicate or as epithet; as, "The lion was raging" "A 
raging lion leaped out." 

In the office of a verb, the rules for participles not limited by the 
term " finite," are the 3d and 8th, consequently a participle, in the office 
of a verb, may 

1. As a copulative, take the same case after as before it; as, "Man, 
being an animal, is moved by the passions of animals." 

2. As a transitive verb, it may govern substantives in the objective; 
as, "He was guarding the door." 

In the office of substantives, the rules applicable are the same that 
were named for the infinitive, with the addition of the 6th and the 
10th. 

Consequently, a participle, in the office of a substantive, may be : 

1. Co subject of a finite verb; as, "Improving is pleasant." 

2. The predicate after a copulative verb ; as, "Seeing is not believing" 

3. In apposition ; as, " Seeing, beholding, viewing, is not believing." 

4. An object after a transitive verb; as, "I want doing, not talking." 

5. An object after a preposition ; as, "Goto your writing." 

6. In the independent case; as, "Oh! the swearing and the drink" 
ing /" 

7. The subject of an adjective; as, " Good willing helps good working." 

8. The subject of an article; as, "The working is the waiting." 

9. It may also put another substantive into the possessive case, by 
Rule 10th; as, "A man's walking maybe his resting; and his sleeping 
under a night-mare may be his toiling." 

This whole list is simply the statement that a participle, in the office 
of a substantive, may be used in all respects like any othor substantive. 

Special Rules. 

1. The Present Participle of a transitive verb may be used 
only in the office of a substantive, and thus be followed by a 
preposition ; as, "In keeping of them, there is great reward." 

This is the case when an article or adjective is attached to the parti- 
ciple ; as, " It was an outrageous breaking of the law." 



syntax: specifically: rule xv. 179 

2. The past tense should not be used for the past participle ; 
as, "I have ridden," not "I have rode" : nor the past partici- 
ple for the past tense; as "I saw him," not "I seen him." 

Directions in Parsing the Participle. 

Till the learner is familiar with the participle he should draw it out, 
When parsing, in tabular form. 

e. g. : " There is something shameful in telling falsehoods." 

The participle f Substantive, j is «i^ert to the prepoaition " in." 

"Telling," < 

v^utj i * 3 transitive, and governs "false- 

as, ^VERB, -j hood," by Rule 8th. 

" Jones was diligently cleaning his musket." 

" A , T m „ „ ( qualifies " Jones " as predicate. 

Adjective, } * Rule 5th. 

-,,__ ( is transitive, and governa^musket" 

VEEB - \ by Rule 8th. W 



The participle 

"Cleaning,"^ 



Rule 15.— A preposition without a governing word 
is used as an adverb, or is a separable particle of the 
verb; as, "He was rising up when I came in." "He 
Btaid over"=" He overst&id" 

This rule is an application of the 11th. A word ordinarilyusedin the 
office of one part of speech is employed in that of another. 



428. IY. Two Simple Sentences Connected. 

1. Both Expressed. 

Rule 16. — Conjunctions connect two sentences, and 
show the relations between them; as, "Though thou 
shouldst bray a fool in a mortar among wheat, with a 
pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart from him." 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Conjunctions, also, may connect the parts of one sim- 
ple sentence ; as, " The bird and its mate formed a pair." 

Special Rules. 

1. Conjunctions, which connect the parts of a sentence 
which is regarded as simple in parsing, require the words they 
connect to be under similar grammatical construction, or re- 
lation. 

By "a sentence which is regarded simple in parsing," is meant, one 
in which we consider but one verb, whether another or others be or be 
not understood ; as, " Light, heat, and impulse are a triad of forces." 
"He acted bravely, wisely, and justly." 

By " the parts of a sentence " are meant the parts of speech other than 
the verb, and also phrases or collections of words within what is 
viewed as a simple sentence; as, "I know him to be fearless in dan- 
ger, and merciful in*victory." The conjunction "and" here connects u to 
be merciful in victory," which is a phrase or collection of words, with "to 
be fearless in danger." In the first of the examples, in the last para- 
graph, the nouns "light," "heat," "impulse," are connected by the con- 
junction "and "once expressed, and once understood. In the second 
example, the adverbs "bravely," "wisely," "justly," are united in the 
same manner. 

The "parts of speech other than the verb" are known from the list of 
the parts of speech. 

By "similar grammatical construction" is meant, that nouns and pro- 
nouns so connected will be in like cases by the same relations: that ad- 
jectives will qualify alike ; articles limit ; adverbs modify ; and preposi- 
tions govern ; all, alike. Each of them, being connected in what is re- 
garded as one sentence, by a conjunction, to a like part of speech, will 
have the same construction with its mate, and be under the same relation 
to some determining word. 

For example, in nouns and pronouns : 

"Tompkins and Smith are tentmates." Both subjects. 

"The man was a thief and liar." Both predicates. 

" Brown's and Wilkin's trunks came." Both possessive. 

" I saw both him and her." Both objective, by verb. 

"Hail! danger and death !" Both independent. 

" It is the light of joy and peace." Both objective by preposition. 

The same construction would follow with either — or, and neither — nor t 
except that the singular number would be imposed by the sense; as, 



syntax: specifically: rule xvi. 181 

"Either James, or John, or Caroline, is in the next room." Here, all are 
subjects to the same verb, but the verb is in the singular number, by the 
sense. 

In Adjectives : 
" The man was great, brave, and modest" These all qualify " man." 

In Adverbs : 
" He wrote calmly but forcibly." They modify one verb. 

In Prepositions : 
" He went up and down the stairs." The two prepositions govern the 
same substantive 

In Conjunctions : 
"His composition, though deep, was yet clear; and though gentle, 
yet not dull." 

The same principle extends even to interjections. Although they 
have no grammatical construction, they come under like relations; 
as, "They shall not lament for him, saying', Ah Lord ! or Ah his glory!" 

It should be observed that the rule only requires that the sentence 
shall be regarded by the speaker as one, and as having but one verb. 

It must not be forgotten, however, that the verbs omitted by Ellip- 
sis in all these examples can be restored, and usually a verb, and hence 
a sentence, for every conjunction ; as, " He wrote calmly, but (he wrote) 
forcibly." 

The principle thus shown is, that ellipsis, in such cases, implies that 
the speaker intends similarity of construction. Ellipsis, therefore, re- 
quires it, as implied in the sense given. 

This prepares for the second special rule. 

2. Conjunctions, which connect two or more simple senten- 
ces, one or more of the verbs being omitted by Ellipsis, require 
the verbs which they connect to be under like grammatical 
construction, by having the same moods and tenses ; as, "Can- 
dor is to be approved and folloived." 

The same principle is here applied : Ellipsis requires similarity of con- 
struction. He who makes the sentence, with such Ellipsis of the verb 
declares that he intends similarity of construction. 

3. But where conjunctions connect two or more simple sen- 
tences, without any Ellipsis of their verbs, similarity of con. 
struction is not required. The moods and tenses of verbs, and 
the cases of nouns and pronouns, may then be the same, or 
may be different. 

Thus, the mood in one sentence may be indicative, or potential, or 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

subjunctive, or imperative, and each with the indicative, or potential, oi 
subjunctive, or imperative, in the other. 

The tense in one may be past, or present, or future, and each with a 
past, or present, or future, in the other. 

The attention of those who desire to understand Grammar is earnestly 
invited to this Rule, and the two before it. 

Grammarians, following Murray, have laid down this strange rule: 

" Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and casea 
of nouns and pronouns I" 

"What must be the effect of such a rule on the mind of a student in 
grammar, when he finds it contradicted on the pages of every book, and 
in the sentences of every conversation ! 

It has caused great perplexity. The moods and tenses in sentences 
connected by conjunctions may happen to be the same. That depends 
upon the sense. In some instances they cannot be the same. The very 
meaning of the moods demand that they shall be different, e. g. : " Love 
not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." Here, in one sentence, is the im- 
perative, and in the other, the subjunctive. " If you are sure that he was 
there, I will pardon him." Here are three verbs in three tenses — present, 
past, and future. The absurdity is yet greater, to demand that the cases 
of nouns and pronouns shall be alike, in the sentences which conjunc- 
tions may connect. 



Explanations for the Subjunctive Mood, with its History. 

429. As the subjunctive mood requires conjunctions, expressed or understood, the 
use of the subjunctive will now be explained. 

430. To understand the use of the subjunctive mood in English, a distinction must be 
made between a subjunctive in sense, and a subjunctive in form. 

431. A subjunctive in sense always exists, where, of two sentences, one is made con- 
ditionally dependent on the other ; as, " If there be a severe winter, the harbor will 
be frozen. ,, The second simple sentence here is dependent on the first ; and the first 
which is depended on, expresses a condition for the second. 

432. Of these two simple sentences, forming one conditional compound sentencej 
that one which expresses the condition is called the antecedent; that which expresses 
the conclusion, drawn from the condition, is the consequent. Thus, in tne examplo 
just given, the first simple sentence is the antecedent, and the second the- consequent. 
If we reversed their situations, their names would be the same — those names being 
determined by the sense, and not by the position. 

433. In contrast to the subjunctive sense, stands the indicative sense. The indicative, 
as we have seen, is simple declaration. The indicative declares a facv. " He is in the 
room." "I saw him." il I will speak to him." The verb in such a case, does not, 
by its meaning, necessarily require a second and simple sentence to follow. The in« 
dicative sense is positive and definite ; the subjunctive, contingent and in infinite. 



syntax: spec: use of subjunctive. 183 

434. This indicative sense is expressed in English by two moods— the indicative and 
the potential. Both declare. Two ideas are to be declared : one, existence or action ; 
the other, the cause of the existence or action. The indicative mood expresses the 
first, and the potential mood the second ; as, (indicative) "He worlcs "; (potential) "He 
can work." 

435. By substitution, a potential can be reduced to an indicative mood without chang- 
ing the sense ; as, u He can work.' W He has the power of working." 

Thus, the indicative sense is represented in English by two moods — the indicative, 
and the potential. 

436. We can now see what are the conditions of language for which the moods, in 
English, are provided. 

Let A represent any subject, and C any predicate, in any simple sentence ; and D 
any subject, and F any predicate in any consequent second and dependent sentence ; 
then, for the indicative sense, we shall have this expression : 

J. A IS C, IN1)ICATIV E M(X»D.| INI)ICAT1V]8 

2. A is the cause of C, Potential Mood. J Sense * 
For the subjunctive sense, we shall have this expression : 
Antecedent. Consequent. 



If A be C, then D is F. 

Conjunction Conjunction 

of of 

Condition. Inference. 



Subjunctive 

Sense. 



The distinction of the subjunctive from the indicative sense is thus apparent. 

437. The place for the subjunctive is in that antecedent. The subjunctive belongs 
to the condition — the supposition — the hypothesis : that is, to the antecedent ; and not 
to the inference — the consequence — the conclusion : that is, not to the consequent. 

The term subjunctive gives the same view. It is the mood of a verb, which re- 
quires a second verb, and thus a second sentence to be, not con-joined, but suB-joinedy 
as dependent, and as inferential. Subjoining moods are in all languages. They re- 
ceive various names. They all imply such use of the verb as to demand a second 
sentence. 

Such is the subjunctive in sense. 

438. The subjunctive, in form, is that particular mood as given in the conjugation 
of an English verb. It has been already explained, and shown to I , in English, the 
simple form of the verb, as that appears in the plural. 

Such is the distinction between the subjunctive, in form, and the subjunctive, in 
sense. 

439. In determining rules for using the subjunctive form, in English, it is useful to 
look into the history of that mood. The learner or reader will gain from the history 
some valuable hints in the study of other languages, and of his own ; with indirect 
assistance in writing or speaking, beside direct assistance in parsing. 

In the form just given by letters of the alphabet, there is seen a case in language, 
that of two sentences conditionally dependent, for which some provision is necessarily 
required. 

In the Indo-European languages, this case was early provided for. A separate form 
of the verb was made for the subjunctive sense. Usually, it was made by changing 
the vowel of the verb, and very frequently by inserting the vowel i or c. In Greek, 
for example, the letter i is subscript, as seen in the " subscript iota." At the same 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

time, provision was made, not only for sentences dependent, conditionally and infer- 
entially, but for ali dependent sentences — for all cases in which a verb in one sentence 
necessarily implied that a second verb should follow in a second sentence. In many 
of these, the vowel i was united with o, as may be seen in the Greek Optative. 
Whoever will look at the moods which require a second sentence, in Sanscrit, Greek, 
or Latin ; in the German, or any of its branches ; in Italian, Spanish, or French, will 
see these modifications. He will be able to detect the subjoining moods, by what we 
shall afterwards call a head vowel, usually i, but sometimes e. Compare, for exam- 
ple, in Latin, sunt, and slnt ; in French, sont, and solent; in Italian, sono, and slan'o ; 
in Spanish, son, and sEan ; in German, sind, and sEIen; in Greek, eicri, or tvn, and 
Uijaav ; or ears, and sirjce ; in Sanscrit, SANTI, and SYUS ; or in the second person, 
STHA, and SYATA. It will be seen that in passing from the indicative to the subjunc- 
tive sense, men have been led, by reason or nature, to insert such vowel sounds.* 

But when the present English came to unite the Gothic in the Saxon, with the classic 
branch in the Greek and Latin, the Gothic form of the subjunctive was found cum- 
brous. In its place, we gradually adopted the simple form of the verb, as seen in its 
plural (387 , 3) ; as, " Were he to arrive to-morrow, I should be glad." " If he come now 
I will meet him." This had the advantage also of allowing the potential auxiliary to 
be understood ; as, " We shall catch him, though he run."—" Though he should run." 

At first, this form of the subjunctive, and the subjunctive in sense, were identical; 
just as now, the imperative in form, and the imperative in sense, are identical. This 
is seen in the oldest writers of our language. 

This perfect identity slowly ceased. At the time of Elizabeth, and of King James I, 
of England, it was not thought necessary to use the subjunctive in form, even with 
two dependent sentences, when an indicative sense — a positive declaration— was in- 
tended in the antecedent. In the old writers, a fine discrimination is shown. 

e. g. : u Though He was rich, yet, for your sakes, He became poor." Here, the sub- 
junctive inform is not used in the first sentence, because the intention is to declare 
the fact, as admitted, that " He was rich." This makes an indicative sense. The 
subjunctive sense, however, is made by a second and dependent sentence being intend- 
ed. The indicative sense prevails, and the subjuncti veform disappears. 

" Though He were a son, yet learned He obedience by the things that He suffered." 
Here the subjunctive is used, because no indicative sense mingles with it. 

This same discrimination is still shown, even by present usage ; as, " If he he in the 
room, I will find him." The idea is that of contingence and uncertainty. It is un- 
certain whether the person is in the room or not, so that there is no indicative sense. 
Again : " You say that he is in the room. Well I If he is here, I do not care." Here 
there is an indicative sense. He is admitted and asserted to be in the room. This in- 
dicative sense prevails, and the subjunctive, in form, disappears. 

The present usage for the subjunctive should be kept in accordance with this principle. 
Hence arises one part of the rule for using the form of the subjunctive mood in English. 

"When only a conditional dependence of two sentences is expressed, 
we may use, in the antecedent, the subjunctive form. 

440. The same principle applies to the expression of time. Where there is a sub- 
junctive sense, the time is indefinite. We express a mere inference of one proposition 
from another. Where there is an indicative sense, the time is definite, because there is 
positive declaration, and it is, by the sense, past, present, or future. 

Thus, giving the subjunctive sense, we can say " Were there a triangle, there -j)ould 

* Even our English subjunctive of the verb " to be " has the vowel E j as, " If I bE }" " If I wSre ;»,» 
compared with < I Am j" "I wAs." 



syntax: spec: use of subjunctive. 185 

be two right angles." " If there be a triangle, there are two right angles." " If there 
shall be a triangle, there will be two right angles." These are but different expressions 
of one idea. In the first, the form of the tense is past ; and in the second, present ; 
and in the third, future. But the sense is really indefinite. It is true at any time, that a 
triangle contains two right angles. This is but the same fact which we have seen thus 
far throughout language. There may be a form without the sense belonging to the 
form, as a plural form but singular sense, or the reverse ; an intransitive form but a 
transitive sense. So in this case, the form of the tense implies past, present, or future 
time ; but the sense, time indefinitely. 

Giving the indicative sense, we say " There was a triangle on the paper." " There 
is a triangle." "There will lea triangle." " There can be a triangle." " There amid 
have been a triangle." We declare and assert definitely about the time. 

441. Hence the old and the best authorities have used the subjunctive, in form, to 
express time indefinitely in the antecedent. 

Usually, the past tenso of the subjunctive form is used for indefinite time, though 
the present is not improper ; as, " Were he industrious, he would succeed." " If ho 
he industrious, he succeeds." or — il He will succeed.''" 

442. This preference of the past tense for indefinite time leads to the use of that 
tense, where a potential mood, in form, but with subjunctive sense, is in the antecedent; 
as, u Could he but sleep, we might expect his recovery." 

"We thus arrive at a second part of the rule for using the subjunctive form, where 
two sentences are connected conditionally. 

It should be used, and commonly in the past tense, to express time indefi- 
nitely; but the indicative or potential, where time is expressed definitely. 

443. It will be at once seen that if the consequent express future time definitely, 
then the past tense of the subjunctive cannot be used ; as, " If he be industrious, he 
will succeed," not, " If he were industrious." " If there be no rain, there will be fire- 
works." 

The subjunctive form is here used in the antecedent, by the first part of the rule — 
by the conditional dependence of two sentences. It is kept from the past tense by 
the definite expression of future time, in the consequent. 

Such is the use of the subjunctive, as fixed by the usage both of the oldest, and also, 
of the best authorities. 

444. But Murray, and authors who follow him, limit the subjunctive to the expres- 
Bion of contingency and futurity. 

To this innovation has been added that of custom. There are many persons who do 
not use the subjunctive form in writing or speaking. It is even thought, by many, to 
be fast disappearing from the language. 

But all who wish to preserve this language from corruptions and innovations (which 
are changing it too fast) should use the subjunctive in form, in the cases just given, 
until general and good usage shall distinctly forbid it. Languages must change, and all 
that their firmest guardians can do is to aid them to change slowly . In language, usage, 
once settled, is to be rule and law.* 

The explanations, and the history of the subjunctive, prepare for the Rule. 

445. Special Rule for the Subjunctive. 

Rule 4. — When a conditional dependence of two sentences 
is expressed simply, the antecedent takes the subjunctive mood 
* " Jus~et norma loquendi." 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in form ; when with indefinite time, commonly the past tense 
of the subjunctive ; but with the assertion of a fact, the Indi- 
cative or Potential.* 

446. Iu parsing, the subjunctive in form can always be known. The subjunctive in 
sense need not always be included in parsing, since the object should always be to 
make the process easy and simple. 

But where the subjunctive in sense is included, the mode of parsing will be as indi- 
cated in the following example : 

" If he cannot obey, he cannot command ." 
" Cannot obey » is by form, in the potential mood, according to its definition (385.) 
It is by sense, subjunctive, because a second and dependent sentence is subjoined. 
44*7. Some examples of the use of the subjunctive follow : 
In parsing them, the pupil may consider the simple sentence in which 
the subjunctive form appears, as the antecedent; and that which con- 
tains an indicative or imperative sense, as the consequent. 

448. If he wish to go farther, and either to make sentences himself, 
or to correct sentences wrongly made, he may refer to the note;f to the 
Appendix, and to the Fourth Part of Grammar, which treats of the cor- 
rect formation of sentences. 

449. Frequently, what is thought the subjunctive, is the potential, 
with the auxiliary omitted. 

Examples op the Subjunctive. 

"If I were to advise him, he would be offended." 

11 He will not be acquitted unless he make acknowledgment. 1 * 

" Though lie slay me, yet will I trust in Him." 

1 '■ If thou give thy soul the desires that please her, she will make thee 
a laughing-stock to thine enemies." 

u Thou couldst have no power against me, except it were given thee 
from above." 

* The remarks on the subjunctive need simply to be read in review, as introductory 
to the rule, but the rule itself is to be carefully remembered and put in practice. 

f The key to all possible formations of sentences is found in the conjunctions and 
relatives. 

la examining these in the English, and in all languages, we find that all sentences 
come, at last, to two forms : 1. The Assertive, or independent, usually named the 
categorical, as A is C ; 2. The Inferential, or dependent, usually named the hypo- 
thetical, as if A be C, then D is F. 

The Inferential may be divided under two heads : the Conditional, as, If A be C, 
then D is F; and the Disjunctive, as, Either A is C, or D is F. But the second is reduc- 
ible to the first. For example, the Disjunctive, " It is either day or night " is equiv- 
alent to the Conditional, u If it be not day, then it is night." 

If we now go beyond these classes to all conceivable ways of combining two de- 
pendent sentences, in any and every language, with every possible use of conjunctions 



syntax: specifically: rule xvii. 187 

" Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." 

" If He do but touch the hills, they shall smoke." 

11 Whether he succeed or not, his intention is laudable." 

This is equivalent to 

1. If he do succeed, his intention is laudable. 

2. " not " " " 



Eule 17. — Conjunctions uniting two or more sub* 
stantives, singular, by "and" give the plural, and by 
m or » a nor » l ] ae singular number, when agreement 
with the verb, pronoun, or adjective, is required. 

e. g. : " The sun and moon are heavenly bodies, which act by fixed 
laws." " The sun, and moon, and earth; the farthest star, and the small* 
est atom, these all feel the same undulations." " Emission, or undulation; 
this, or that, is to be the theory." 

In this rule, the same principle is seen which applies throughout lan- 
guage. The sense determines use. 

Special Rule. 

Each, every, either, neither, when attached to substantives, 
require a singular verb, even when the conjunction u and M may 

and relatives, we find that all are reducible, in sense, to the conditional form : If Abo 
C, then D is F. 

e.g. : 1. " Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee."=s"7f thou wouldst not be hated, 
do not reprove a scorner. " 

2. " Study, that you may improve.'Wif you would improve, you should study." 

S. " Unless you speak the truth, we cannot decide. "==" Jf you do not speak the 
truth, we cannot decide .' , = ll If wo are to decide, you must speak the truth." 

4. " I have sur named thee, though thou hast not known me.'Wijf thou hast not 
known me, I have yet surnamed thee." 

The examples could be extended so as to cover every case. In another part of the 
course, the demonstration will be found complete. The learner may rest in this im- 
portant conclusion : 

If we represent for any simple sentence, its subject by A, and its predicate by C ; 
and for any two dependent simple sentences, the antecedent by the same letters, and 
the subject of the consequent by D, and its predicate by F, then all the combinations 
of language come back, by the substitution of equivalents, to these forms : 
1. The Assertive ; A is C. 
•2. The Inferential ; if A be C, then D is F. 

The mature learner, the intelligent reader, the zealous instructor, can apply this 
principle to examples of the subjunctive. 



1 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

be between the substantives; as, "Every leaf, and every dew- 
drop, and every star proclaims, God made me." 

The reason of the rule is evident; 1, from the sense of the adjective. 
Each, every, either, neither, are distributive in sense. They represent one 
in a class ; 2, from the sense of the conjunction. It does not unite the 
words, but the sentences, made by repeating the verb; as, "Every leaf 
proclaims; and every star proclaims. 17 



Eule 18, — An interjection has no grammatical con- 
struction ; as, " Congenial horrors, hail !" 



Rule 19. — A substantive, or word used as a substan- 
tive, may be freed from grammatical construction, and 
is then in the independent case; as, "The signal being 
given, the broadside was fired." 

This rule applies (248) : 

1. In partial sentential construction; as, "He being here, we are ready." 

="As he is here." 

2. In address; as, " Friend, wherefore art thou come?" 

3. In exclamation ; as, "0, liberty!" 

4. In repetition and inversion ; as, " My child! where is she? "= xr Where 

is my child? 11 
This applies, necessarily, to the infinitive, in its use as a substantive; 
as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault." 



Obs.— This subject of Synthetic Syntax Specifically, is only designed, as was said at 
its beginning, to repeat and unfold what precedes. Grammar is but the repeated ap- 
plication of a few simple principles which do not, and cannot alter. 



syntax: position. 



POSITION 



450. Under Syntax, grammarians usually place the Position , or arrangement of worda 
in a sentence. 

It seems, to be there, out of place. In studying a, foreign language, it is needful to 
know the rules for Position, under Syntax. 

But in one's native language, a sufficient knowledge of position for understanding 
Eyntax is given by Logical Analysis. 

A few remarks, enough to prevent obstacles in parsing, will be given. 

By the analysis under Universal Grammar, we begin with the essential parts of 
speech, which are-thc verb and the substantive. 

The place of the verb, on which the sentence depends, determines the places of all 
the other words, in every language. 

The possible places of the substantive, when a subject, are before, in, or after the 
verb, to which it is nominative. Its natural place, in English, is before; as, "James 
will be here." But it may be inserted by a question ; as, " Will James be here?" or 
it may be after, by a question, by a command, by emphasis, or when a predicate ; as 
u Is James here?" " Come James." "Here is James." " James is a, footman." 

As an object for a preposition or transitive verb, there are two possible places for 
a substantive — one after, and one before the governing word. The natural place, in 
English, is after the governing word ; as, " The boy struck me." " Ho ran at me." 
But it may precede, as, by emphasis; or, by relatives; or, by the movement of the 
preposition; or, by question ; as, "Me, he restored." "Him, he hanged." " I am he 
whom he struck." "Thisie the place I went to." " Whom did you see ? " 

Such are positions for the essentials. The attendants are the adjective and adverb. 

The possible places of the adjective, are before, or after the substantive qualified. 
The natural place, in English, is before, when an epithet, and after, when a predicate ; 
as, " The great Diana of the Ephesians." "Diana, of the Ephesians, is great." But 
this order may be varied, according to sense and feeling ; "Great is Diana of the Ephe- 
sians." Wo say in the natural order, " A dark, rolling, flashing cloud was there." or, 
"A cloud, dark, rolling, flashing, was there." or, "A cloud was there, dark, rolling, 
flashing." 

The possible place of the adverb, as regards the verb, is after, in, or before. Its 
natural place, in English, is after ; as, " He fought bravely." But it may be before, by 
the demands of sense and feeling ; as, " Right bravely too, did he fight." It may be 
Inserted between parts of the verb ; as, " That was well done." 

The possible place of the adverb, as regards the adjective, is before, or after. Its 
natural place, in English, is before ; as, " She was exceedingly beautiful." But it may 
be after, by the sense or feeling ; as, " She was beautiful, exceedingly." 

The formative parts of speech follow. 

Of those which connect, are the conjunctions and prepositions. Ono for sentences, 
one for words. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The possible places for conjunctions, are before, in, or after the sentences which they 
connect. Their natural place, in English, is before them ; as, "Though you leave me, 
yet I shall see you." But the conjunction may be within a sentence ; as, " I shall yet 
see you ; " or after ; as, " I shall leave you, though." " Where shall T look, tften?" 

The possible places of prepositions, are before, or after the substantive governed. 
The natural place, in English (as in most languages, and hence their name), is before ; 
as, " I went to London." But it may be after, for emphasis ; as, " Well 1 London i 
went to;" or by a relative ; as, " London was the place which I went to." 

Of those which substitute, are pronouns and interjections. 

The positions of pronouns are seen under substantives. -• 

The possible places of interjections, are within, before, or after the sentences to 
which they are attached. Their natural place, in English, is before, or within; as, "0 
Lord, forgive," or, " Forgive, Lord." The name, interjection, implies that they are 
thrown within a sentence. But they may be after ; as, " I heard it, alas!" 

The artide remains. Its possible places are before or after its substantive. Its natu- 
ral place, in English, is before ; as, "The man." "The best man." But it may bo 
after ; e. g.: " As a man, he was the best." 

Such is Position. The pupil will see, by these remarks, that he will understand Syn- 
tax more completely, by Logical Analysis, and by attending to the sense, than by de- 
tails crowded on his memory. The demands of sense and feeling require the words 
to take a great variety of positions. 

4M. The true place of the subject of Position, is in the Fourth Part of Grammar— 
Prosody. There we learn the representation of sentences. There we study the possi- 
ble position of words, that we may learn how to make sentences with variety and 
beauty. But for parsing, under Syntax, the subject is of little use. 



452. The tenth attainment consists in ability to apply the rules of Syn- 
thetic Syntax Specifically to any sentences made according to the correct use 
of the English language, or to the correction of any sentences wrongly made. 

The previous explanations, and the Special Rules just given, are to pro- 
mote this attainment 

Directions. — Apply Logical Analysis to each sentence in the form 
given under Universal Grammar. If there be abnormal use of a sen- 
tence, give substitution or transposition, or the supply of Ellipsis, as re- 
quired, so as to bring out the sense. If there be abnormal use of a 
word, put a dot under that word in the analysis. Complete, orally, the 
details of Logical Analysis, if required. 

Then parse, analytically, as before, both generally and specifically. 
Parse, synthetically, by applying the Rules of Syntax both generally and 
specifically. 

Example : " If the few be but the brave, they can conquer the many." 

Logical Analysis.— The analysis (on the board, slate, or paper) shews there are two 
simple sentences, because two finite verbs. Both are expressed. 



syntax: specifically: practice. 191 

There is abnormal use of the sentence, by Ellipsis. The conjunction " yet," as the 
reciprocal of " if," is understood before the second sentence. 

There is abnormal use of words in the adjectives " few," " brave," and " many." 
They are used as substantives. They are proved to be so used by these tests. They 
receive the article : (Test under the 6th Rule, 231.) Two of them, "few" and 
11 brave," are subjects of a finite verb : (Test under the 1st and 2d Rules, 230.) Ono 
of them, " many," is the object of a transitive verb : (Test under the 8th Rule, 232.) 
These Tests show them to be used a3 substantives. This abnormal use I have indi- 
cated by a dot placed under each of these words in the analysis. 

The sense i3 now apparent. There are two simple sentences, conditionally depend- 
ent, forming, together, a compound sentence. 

I am prepared to give the detaf.s of the analysis under Universal Grammar, or to 
proceed with the parsing, as required. 

I am required to parse, and to do this by combining, on each word, the analytic 
with the synthetic parsing. 

I am required not to follow the order of the words, but to proceed from the verb, 
in both directions, according to the order of Logical Analysis. 

II Be," analytically, is a verb, finite, copulative ; in conjugation, of the old form ; 
in mood, subjunctive ; in tense-form , present ; in number, plural ; in person, third. 

Synthetically, it agrees with its subject, " few," in number and person, according 
to the 2d Rule of Synthetic Syntax : " The finite verb agrees with its subject or nomi- 
native in number and person." 

I am required to prove each point of this statement : 

1. It is a verb, For a verb is the word in a sentence which unites the whole sen- 
tence, and asserts existence or action, always of a subject, and with or without an 
object : (Definition 183, 3.) 

Tills so asserts and unites this sentence, and is, consequently, a verb. 

2. It is finite. For a finite verb is a verb used normally , and not as an infinitive nor 
participle. This is so used, and thus is finite. Also, it is not in the form of the in- 
finitive nor participle, and is, therefore, finite. 

3. It is copulative. For a verb, used as a copula, is copulative. This is so used, and 
hence is copulative. Also, it is the substantive verb, and so copulative. 

4. Its conjugation is in the old form. For this is shown by the table of conjugations, 
viz. : am, was, been. It does not form its past and past participle in d, or ed. Conse- 
quently, it is of the old form of conjugation, commonly, but less correctly, called 
irregular. 

5. The mood is subjunctive. It is subjunctive both in sense and form. It is sub- 
junctive in sense becauso it is in the antecedent of two sentences conditionally do- 
pendent, without any indicative sense or assertion of fact : (Special Rule, 445.) 

It is subjunctive in form, as shown by the conjugation of the verb " to be," through 
all the moods and tenses. Also, it expresses time indefinitely. Hence, tho mood is 
Bubjuuctive. I am prepared to state the reason for the rule, if required. (440.) 

6. The tense-form is present. The form is determined by the conjugation. That 
conjugation presents this form for the present tense. 

The sense i3 indefinite time. The dependence of the two sentences is given as-exist- 
ing at any time — past, present, or future 

7. The number is plural. For the number of the verb-depends on that of the sub- 
ject. The subject " few," is in tho plural. It is proved to be plural by the meaning 
of tho word " few." It is proved to be in a plural sense, by the pronoun " they," 
which represents it in tho next sentence. Consequently, the number of the verb is plural. 



192 ENGLISH GEAM M A K . 

8. The person of too verb is third. The person of the verb depends on the person 
of the subject. The subject is of the third person. The third person is that which is 
spoken of. The subject " few " is spoken of. Consequently, it is of the third person, 
and the verb of the same. 

The table of conjugations for this verb would not declare the perscn. Hence, we 
determine it by the sense and subject. 

I have thus established each point of the analytic parsing. 

Synthetically, it agrees with its subject. For that of which the verb asserts, is 
44 few," as shown by the sonse. "Few," therefore, is the subject and nominative. 
Consequently, the 2d Rule of Syntax applies to the relation between " be " and " few." 

Thus, all the statements, both of Analytic and Synthetic Syntax, are proved. 

The next word in the order of Logical Analysis, is the subject, " few." 

<; Few," analytically, is by abnormal use, a substantive, as already proved. It is 
used as a noun, common ; in person, third ; in number, plural ; in gender, common ; 
in case, nominative. 

Synthetically, it is in the nominative case to the verb " be," by the first rule. 

Of these statements, I am required to prove only that which asserts that the gender 
is common. 

It is of the common gender. For the gender of substantives, in English, is merely 
their use as representing one of the two sexes, definitely, or as representing either or 
neither, indefinitely. The sense here is indefinite, and applies to either of the sexes. 
When this is the case, the gender is common. It is so here. Consequently, " few " ia 
of the common gender. 

The instructor may be here supposed to say that this is sufficient. 

By this example, the true mode of parsing can be seen, without the extension of the 
process to the other words. 



Examples for Miscellaneous Parsing^ both by the written 
and oral method. 

" The mind is the man." 

" A man is but what he knows." 

" The mind itself is but an accident to knowledge ; for knowledge is a 
double of that which is.'' 

11 The truth of being, and the truth of knowing, and the truth of 
speaking, are one." 

" Things, thoughts, and words are perpetually correspondent, each to 
the other, and by studying one, you may learn the two others." 

" What are men's thoughts, but the shadows of things, and what their 
words, but the shadows of thoughts I" 

" What is language but the outward representation of thought, and 
what is thought but the inward representation of fact and law!" 

" God puts his thought into the world by word ; but man, by word, 
puts the world into his thought." 

"The symbols of Algebra are signs, for a language, outwardly. The 
figures of Geometry are signs for conceptions, inwardly. He is the per- 



MISCELLANEOUS PARSING! EXAMPLES. 193 

feet mathematician who can turn every combination of symbols into 
conceptions, and every geometric conception into algebraic expression." 

Aristippus said "that those who studied particular sciences, and neg- 
lected philosophy, were like Penelope's wooers, that made love to the 
waiting woman." 

* 'All Sciences present but modes of Existence; and all Arts, of 
Action. So all speech comes to the sentence ; the sentence to the verb ; 
and the verb to Existence or Action. If we look at God ; He is, and 
He works. So it is with the universe. And thus Existence and Action 
underlie everything." 

11 In the Sciences, we consider what is, or what must be, or what 
ought to be : We consider what is, in Physics ; what must be, in Mathe- 
matics. We consider what ought to be, as beautiful >and good, if with- 
in ourselves, in Ethics ; if without ourselves, in Aesthetics. To Aes- 
thetics belongs the direction of all the fine arts." 

The first of these deals with the indicative mood; the latter with the 
potential and imperative. 

"The perfect philosopher is not he who relies on observation only, to 
see what nature is ; nor he who looks to his thoughts only, to know 
what nature ought to be ; nor he who uses his language only, whether 
that of mathematics or logic, to say what nature must be ; but he who 
uses all these methods, and by each one, assists the others. His mind 
is contracted, who cannot rise to this level." 

" He who would study science only by Induction, is like a musician 
with a harp, who would cut two-thirds of th^ strings before he began to 
play. So is he who would take Deduction singly, without observation, 
and spin the world from his brain. So is he who relies on Eepresentation 
only in his symbols and syllogisms. A good musician uses all his strings." 

* l The pleasures of human affections are greater than those of the 
senses : but the pleasures of knowledge exceed those of all affections, 
but such as are divine." 

" The mind of man is raised by knowledge above the confusion of 
things, where it may have the prospect of the order of nature, and of 
the error of men." 

" In aspiring to the throne of power, the angels transgressed and fell. 
In presuming to come within the oracle of knowledge, man transgressed 
and fell. But in pursuit towards the similitude of God's goodness, nei- 
ther man nor spirit ever has transgressed, or shall transgress." 

41 He conquers twice, who, even in victory, overcomes himself" 

11 In desire, even swiftness is delay." 

" Fortune makes him a fool whom she makes her darling." 

"A man dies so often as he loses Lis friends." y 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

" The smallest hair casts a shadow." 

"He who injures one threatens a hundred." 

"He of whom many are afraid, ought, himself, to fear many." 

" In revenge, even our haste is criminal." 
, " When men are in misfortune, if we do but laugh, we offend." 

" Lock and key will hardly keep that secure which pleases everybody." 

" There is no situation so good, but that there is something wanting." 

"It is part of the gift, to deny kindly." 

" life ! an age to him that is in misery ; and to him that is happy, a 
moment." 

" The best way to keep good actions in mind, is to refresh them witb 
new." 

" Revenge is a kind of wild justice, which, the more a man's nature 
runs to, the more ought law to weed it out." 

"Men ought to find the difference between saltness and bitterness, 
between wit and malignity. As he who is satirical makes others afraid 
of his wit, so be needs to be afraid of others' memory." 

" Credulity is a magnet, attracting lies." 

"A few among mankind are drawn by things themselves ; more, by 
the names of things ; most, by the names of their leaders." 

" Sound judgment maybe lost between the conceits of young men, 
and the prejudices of old men. In one, the fruit is not ripe; in the 
other, it is choked." 

" Wherever man's body can live on this earth, it must be between the 
earth's two poles. So is it- for his mind. Truth and Duty, by which the 
mind lives, are never in the extremes, but between them." 

" Some persons think that as they recede from what is bad, they are 
nearer to what is good, and this mistake has caused endless troubles in 
communities and nations. The movement of man, in matters of truth 
and duty, is not in a straight, but like that of the earth, in a curve line, 
returning into itself." 

" In moving from any point around the circumference of a circle, we 
are increasing our distance till we are in the middle, and after that, 
coming nearer to the place of beginning. So it is with a movement 
from error and wrong. We are leaving them till we reach the medium, 
but after passing that, we are approaching what we left." 

"Reformers and enthusiasts should imitate the wisdom of perfect 
guides. God tolerates evils whose removal would cause greater evils. 
His Son said of the tares among the wheat, ' let both grow together 
until the harvest,' and He gave this reason, 'lest while ye root up the 
tares, ye root up also the wheat with them.' " 



SUMMARY OF THE FIRST DIVISION. 195 

453. As we have now reached the conclusion of the First Part of Grammar, the pupil 
should apply, by diligent parsing, every attainment which he has thus far acquired. 

Instructors should be careful to bring out each grammatical principle already named, 
by questioning, that carries the mind back step by step, to a fundamental basis. Es- 
pecially should this be applied to the tests for parts of speech, and to the correspon- 
dence between rules of syntax and definitions. For example : 

You say this word is a substantive. How do you know it to be a substantive? Yes, 
by the definition ; and, what rule of syntax grows from the definition ? You state cor- 
rectly ; but what are the first and second rules of syntax ? By what tests also do you 
know the word to be a substantive ? 

Or ; you say the rule of syntax is, that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. What definition is the counterpart to that rule ? Yes ; and now, what tests 
do you base on that definition ? 

Or ; yor say, here is abnormal use. What is abnormal use ? Then, what change have 
you made here ? If a change of function, what would the function of the word have 
been, without change? 

The parsing may be by written sentences for the book or board, to be 
drawn out fully ; or, by a book in the hand, with the pupil parsing sen- 
tence by sentence. 

The correction of what is erroneous may be in the same manner, by 
written sentences given out, or by those taken in a book. Examples of 
these may be found in the Appendix. 



SUMMARY AND DEDUCTION 
Of the First Division of Grammar, 

454. It will be pleasant for the learner to form a summary of this 
part of grammar. 

He will see, by the following, how he can make all the parts in his 
own mind. 

The parts are, (a.) Definitions of the Parts of Speech; (5.) Logical 
Analysis; (c.) the Rules of Synthetic Syntax. To these, we may add 
Abnormal Use. 

He can form all these parts directly, for himself, from the Requirements 
of speech. 

In I, are those Requirements. Let him read them, and if he assents 
to them, he will find that Definitions, II; Logical Analysis, III; Rule? 
of Synthetic Syntax, IT ; and Abnormal Use, V; will grow directly from 
them. 

Not the details, but the great outlines of grammar, will thus be fixed 
in the memory and reason. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 



I. Requirements. 

Men, having reason, require speech. 
Speech requires sense. 
Speech requires sentences. 
Sense requires sentences. 
Sentences require assertion. 

These two are the essentials: 
Assertion requires the verb. 
The verb requires a subject — the substantive. 

These two are the attendants: 
The substantive requires the adjective. 
Yerb, and adjective, require the adverb. 

These four are the material parts of speech. 
In a sentence, the substantive may require substitution and connection. 
Sentences may require substitution and connection. 
Substitution for the substantive, requires a pronoun. 
Connection for the substantive, requires a preposition. 
Connection for sentences, requires a conjunction. 
Substitution for sentences, requires an interjection^ 
Limitation for substantives, requires an adjective, called ARTICLE. 

These are the formative parts of speech. 
From these will rise, directly, brief definitions of the parts of speech, 
thus: 

II. Definitions of the Parts of Speech. 

A verb is the part of speech which asserts, 

A substantive " " " " is subject to assertion. 

An adjective " " " " qualifies. 

An adverb " " " " modifies. 

A pronoun " " " " substitutes for a substantive. 

An interjection u " " " substitutes for a sentence. 

A conjunction M " " " connects sentences. 

A preposition " M " " " words to substantives, 

An article " " " " . limits substantives. 

III. General Rules of Synthetic Syntax. 

Every verb has a subject. 

The substantive which receives the assertion of a verb, is its subject. 

Adjectives qualify substantives. 

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs 



SUMMARY OF THE FIRST DIVISION. 197 

Pronouns are used instead of substantives, and have thus like gram- 
matical construction with them. 

Interjections are used instead of sentences, and thus have no grammati- 
cal construction. 

Conjunctions connect sentences. 

Prepositions connect substantives to other words in a sentence. 

Articles limit substantives. 

Again, from the Requirements, will come Logical Analysis. 

IV. Logical Analysis. 

Logical Analysis of a sentence is simply the separation of the ma- 
terial from the formative parts of speech ; and in the material, of 
the essentials from the attendants, and the placing of these in suc- 
cessive ranks, with the Essentials at the head. 

In the first line, are the verb and its subject. 

In the others, are the modifying words. 

Y. Abnormal Use. 

Abnormal use is, simply, change of method in speech. 

One part of speech may perform the office of another, as one workman 
may do the work of another. This is abnormal use in parts of speech. 

A sentence may leave nothing, or something to be supplied by the 
mind. The latter is abnormal use in sentences, requiring Transposition, 
Substitution, or the supply of Ellipsis. 

Thus, all the parts of grammar come from the fundamental require- 
ments of speech. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



DIVISION II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



DIVISION II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 
€xwxa£anu 

455. "With the Second Division of Grammar, we leave the construction of the 
sentence^ and come to that of the word. 

We have seen the relations of words, as combined in sentences. From these have 
come important instructions and attainments, united in ability to parse sentences 
well. 

We are now to see, in the English language, the words themselves. We are to learn 
how they are made, and what they mean. The instructions and attainments given oy 
this part of grammar are equally important, and indispensable with those from the 
other. They give knowledge of the English language, and power to use it. But one 
may parse sentences well, and yet have little of this knowledge or this power. 

But it should be remembered that the parsing of sentences is to continue while the 
other divisions of grammar are under examination. The pupil should, of his own 
volition, parse at least one sentence daily. The instructor should devote a part of the 
time for every recitation to one exercise, at least for one pupil, in Syntactical Parsing, 
including, of course, the Analytic and Synthetic mode, as well as Logical Analysis, by 
the written or oral method. 

One reason for the method of this present work is that by it the pupil can begin 
with parsiDg in his very first lesson, and continue with that to the last. The design 
of the course would be lost if this rule were not observed. 



DEFINITION. 

456. The second division of Grammar is Etymology. 
It treats of the construction of words (162). 

It bears the same relation to a word, as Syntax to a sentence. 

Divisions. 

457. Etymology has two parts : Formation and Classi- 
fication. 

(201) 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

458. Formation regards trie construction, from its sources, 
of any given word. 

It is construction applied to any single word in the language. For 
example : the word given might be in-de-struct-i-bil4~ty. If we find the 
source of every syllable with its letters, and also of its sense, we study 
its formation. 

459. Classification regards the construction of words of 
like formation into classes, with their subdivisions. 

It is construction applied to the words of the language in their ar- 
rangement. For example: the words expressive, and depression, and 
incompressibillity, are derived alike from the word press. In classifying 
words of derivation, they would be put in the same class. Destruct- 
ive, constructive, productive, end alike, in ive. In classifying words by 
termination, they would be put in the same class. Destructive, and 
ruinous, mean alike. In classifying words by signification, they would 
be put in the same class. 

It is convenient to regard Classification first. 

Classification of Words. 

460. "Words are classified according to their Derivations, 
their Terminations, and their Significations. 

The learner needs three vocabularies of these three kinds to aid him 
in this part of Grammar. In one for Derivations, all the words derived 
from one source must be together. This is Etymological. In one for 
Terminations, the words ending in the same letters and sound must be 
together. This is Terminational, and is frequently misnamed a Bhyming 
Dictionary. In one for Significations, the words whose meanings are of 
one class must be together. This is Categorical, as the classes are named 
Categories. Such a collection has been named, "A Thesaurus of English 
Words and Phrases."* 

"Words are arranged by their first letters, where those commencing with 
the same letter are together. Such an arrangement is alphabetical, be- 
cause following the order of letters in the alphabet. It forms the com- 
mon dictionary. A good alphabetical dictionary should be owned and 
used. 

* There are but two of much value in English. One is that of Bishop Wilkins, called 
''in Essay Towards a Real Character." The other is that of Roget, with the nama 
given above. • 



etymology: foemation of words. 203 

An alphabetical dictionary is the most convenient for reference, but 
the worst for the study of the language. 

When words are classiQed by their derivations, their endings, and their meanings, 
the structure and laws of the language show themselves, to observation, more palpa- 
bly than any writer on language could give them. They are then so arranged that 
one can easily have a mastery over his language, and use it at his will. The assist- 
ance rendered is like that given by a well arranged cabinet of minerals to him who 
studies Mineralogy ; by specimens and plates to the student of Botany ; by models 
and specimens to one learning Anatomy or Zoology. The eye tells instantly and per- 
fectly what the ear would learn slowly and incompletely. He who seeks to learn his 
language without such vocabularies, is in the position of one who studies Geography 
without maps. 

Such classification is of immediate and prospective use. 

It is of immediate use, because it prepares words for receiving the 
laws of the Third Part of Grammar, which treats of representation. It 
presents the principles of spelling and pronunciation through mere in- 
spection of words so arranged. It is of prospective use, because it fits 
the words of the language to be employed well, in all writing, all speak- 
ing, and in all investigations that rest on the force of terms. 



Formation of Words. 

461. The formation of a word from its sources, regards 
its form or its meaning. 

462. The form of the word is its appearance when written, 
or its sound when spoken. It is the impression on the senses, 
of the word, written or spoken. The form addresses the senses 
of sight and hearing. 

e.g. : The word length, or thickness, or number. 

463. The meaning of the word is the impression on the 
mind from the word written or spoken. The meaning ad- 
dresses the mind. 

Thus, the general signification of the three words just given is Quan- 
tity. "Length" is quantity. "Thickness 7 ' is quantity. "Number" 
is quantity. The particular meaning of each one will be some mode of 
quantity. 

464. The parts of the form are syllables and letters. 
"Words are made up of syllables, and syllables of letters. 



204: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

465. The formation of a word, therefore, regards th«j 
sources of its letters, of its syllables, and of its meaning. 

466. The sources of its letters are Elementary Sounds. 

" " " syllables are Primitive "Words. 

" " " meaning are Categories. 

467. The formation of Elementary Sounds, as the sources 
of letters, is considered under Phonology. 

468. The formation of Primitives, as the sources of the 
syllables of words, is considered under "Word-Building. 

469. The formation of Categories, as the sources of the 
meanings of words, is considered under Signification. 



etymology: alphabet. 205 







CHAPTER 


I. 












Phonology. 










470. For understanding Phonology, we 


begin with the Alphabet. 


Koman. 


Italic. 


Old English. 






Greek. 


A a 


A a 


% a 


a 


A 


a 




Alpha. 


B b 


B b 


9 * 


be 


B 


a 


6 


Beta. 


C c 


C c 


€ t 


ce 


r 


7 


F 


Gamma. 


D d 


D d 


§ 1> 


de 


A 


6 




Delta. 


E e 


E e 


© £ 


e 


E 


e 




Epsilon. 


P f 


F f 


$ i 


ef 


Z 


t 


I 


Zeta. 


G g 


9 


<H g 


J e 


H 


n 




Eta. 


H h. 


H h 


ijg 


( he or 
( aitch 


e 





■& 


Theta. 


I i 


I i 


it 1 - 


i 


i 


i 




Iota. 


J j 


J 3 




J* 










K k 


K h 


1 k 


ka 


K 


K 




Kappa. 


L 1 


L I 


1 I 


el 


A 


X 




Lambda. 


M m 


M m 


Pm 


em 


M 


M 




Mu. 


N n 


N n 


I n 


en 


N 


V 




Nu. 


o 


o 


# 





s 


1 




Xi. 


P p 


P p 


1 P 


pe 










Omicron. 


Q q 


Q q 


$ q 


cu 


n 


IT 


TU 


Pi. 


R r 


R r 


S t 


ar 


p 


P 


Q 


Eho. 


S s 


S s 


ft s 


es 


2 


a 


S 


Sigma. 


T t 


T t 


s t 


te 


T 


T 




Tau. 


U u 


U u 


m a 


u 


T 


V 




Upsilon. 


V v 


V v 


b 


ve 


# 


<t> 




Phi. 


Ww 


Ww 


Mbs 


00 


X 


X 




Chi. 


X x 


X x 


% * 


eks 


* 


+ 




Psi. 


Y 7 


r y 


1 5 


wi or j( 


3 £2 


(0 




Omega. 


Z z 


Z z 


% I 


ze or zed 









206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

471. Phonology is a head of Grammar, which treats of the formation 
of the sounds represented by letters. 

472. Letters are marks for the eye, representing certain sounds ad- 
dressed to the ear. 

473. These letters are placed in a list, called an Alphabet. In that given may be seen 
the English Alphabet, having by its side the Greek, of the classic family. 

474. The sounds which are represented by these alphabetic letters, we 
call elementary. 

475. These elementary sounds, well understood, give assistance, 1, for a correct 
pronunciation of one's own language ; 2, for acquiring easily the pronunciation of for- 
eign languages ; 3, for estimating the expressiveness and force of words ; 4, for trac- 
ing readily the sources of English words, and detecting the same primitive In different 
tongues. 



Sec. 1. — Principles of Formation. 

47 G. For the formation of elementary sounds, we consider that which 
acts, and that which is acted on. 

477. That which acts, is the breath. The organs op speech are 
acted on. 

478. The sounds used in human speech are made by one pri- 
mary AGENT — THE BREATH. 

479. The breath passes among the organs of speech, and, by acting 
on them, causes sound. 

Those theories of sound are defective which only consider the vocal organs, and dis« 
regard the actions and conditions of the breath. 

480. The organs of speech are general or special. 

481 . The general organs of speech are vocal chords. 

These chords extend into : 1. The mouth and tongue; 2. The throat and chest ; 3. 
Portions of the head and nose. 

482. The breath acting on them produces vibration and sound when passing into the 
outward air. When the breath is imprisoned, the inward sound is called rever Der- 
ation. 

The breath also forms the degrees of Pitch, Force, and Time, used in speaking and 
reading, as well as singing. The pitch may be high or low ; the force, loud or soft ; 
the time, slow or quick. 

483. The Special organs of speech are the Active and Passive. 

484. The Active are mostly those attached to the lower, and the Passive the upper 
jaw ; but the upper lip is in some cases, also, active. 

485. The Active organs are tho lips, the tongue, and the throat. 
The lips are the upper and the lower. 

486. In forming letters, portions of the tongue are used, or the whole body of it. The 
park used are four : the tip ; the middle surface ; the back ; the base, or root. 

487. The parts of the throat are the upper and lower. 

The upper is that portion where the palate can approach or touch the back of tho 
tongue ; the lower is that portion of the throat where its back can approach or touch 
the base of the tongue. 



etymology: elementary sounds. 



207 



488. The Passive organs are the fvper teeth, and the arch of the mouth. 
Such are the organs of speech. 

489. The primary agent which produces articulate sounds being the breath, the 
whole theory of articulate sounds is based ou this one principle. 

Alphabetical Sounds. — General Yiew. 

490. The whole process of forming the elementary sounds represented in the alpha- 
bets of all languages, may be thus summed up, to be afterwards explained : 

491. The special organs of speech are in contact, or not in contact. If they be in 
contact, the breath is arrested, and consonants are formed. If they be not in contact, 
the breath is free, and vowels are formed, provided the breath be sufficiently condensed 
to make the vocal chords vibrate. 

The contact is complete, or partial. If complete, the whole breath is arrested for 
the sound, giving concludent consonants. If partial, a crevice is left for a very small 
portion of breath, while the greater portion of the breath is arrested, giving con- 
tinuant consonants. The arrested breath is pressed in one of three directions, (into 
the mouth, chest, or nostrils), in the two latter cases forming peculiar reverberation. 
Thus are formed Orals, Pectorals, Nasals. This process is applied to Lips, Tongue, and 
Throat. Thus the classes and divisions of consonants are formed. The classes of con- 
sonants are determined by the place of contact. The subdivisions by the direction of 
breath against the place of contact. 

The classes of vowels are determined by the place of condensation of the breath j 
their subdivisions, by the degree of condensation 



EECAPITULATION AND SUMMARY, 

fBy Lips, 



,.{ 



s 

o . 

I 



*to5* tf { B » M, > 



Arrested. 



Free ; with 



(Tip. 
(Parts. -{ Middle. 
By Tongue, «j (Base. 

(Whole. 

( Wholly. 

(Partially. 

C Without reverberation. 

(With « 

Most condensation. 
Less " 

Least " 



The 
Formed 



Consonants. 



Semi-Vowels. 



Vowels'. 



Sucn are the general principles of formation. This general view will now be ex« 

plained. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Sec. 2. — Classes of Consonants and Vowels. 

492. The breath, in passing among the vocal organs, is either intercepted 
by contact of the organs, or it is not so intercepted. Hence comes the 
first division of articulate sounds represented in letters. They are divided 
into consonants and vowels. 

Obs. — The sounds represented by consonants are best understood by placing a vowel 
before them in pronunciation ; thus : eb, ed, eg, ek, el, em, en, ep, er, es, et, ev, ez ; 
tor b, d, g, k, 1, m, n,p, r, s, t, v, z. 

493. Consonants are articulate sounds, formed when the breath is in- 
tercepted by contact of the organs of speech: as, b, p, t, k, p, m ; in ebb, 
up, pit, oak, up, am. 

494. Towels are sounds formed when the organs are not in contact, 
and the breath, in its passage, is not intercepted, but condensed ; as, for 
example, a, e, i, o, u. 

Consonants cannot be sounded without vowels, while vowels can be sounded by 
themselves. The name, consonant, expresses this fact. 

Classes of Consonants. 

495. The Classes of Consonants are determined by the place of contact. 

496. They are Labials, Dentals, Gutturals, Linguals, Liquids. 

497. Labials are consonants formed by the lower lip. It is applied to 
the upper lip or teeth. The Labials are five; eb, ep, em, ef, ev, called 
in English, b, p, m, f, v. 

498. Dentals are consonants formed by the tip of the tongue. It is 
applied to the arch of the mouth. The Dentals are seven; T, et; D, ed; 
K, en; S, ess; Z, ez ; TH hard, as in thick; Th soft, as in the, breathe. 

499. Gutturals are consonants formed by the back of the tongue. 
It is applied to the palate. They are five: K, ek; hard G, eg, as in 
gag ; and NG-, eng, as in sing. German, ch, and g final. 

500. Linguals are consonants formed by the middle surface of the 
tongue. It is applied to the arch of the mouth. They are four : CH, 
as in charm; J, as in jam; SH, as in ship ; ZIT, as in azure. 

501. Liquids are consonants formed by the whole body of the tongue. 
The breath is made to pass on each side of the tongue, forming L, or along 
the hollowed middle of the tongue, forming R. L and R are the Liquids. 

Such are the classes of Consonants, viz. : Labials, Dentals, Gutturals, 
Linguals, Liquids. They are presented in one view in the following list . 
" Labials, P, B, M, F, Y. 
Dentals, T, D, N, S, Z, TH, Th. 
Gutturals, K, G, Ng. (German, <&\, g final.) 
Linguals, CH, J, Sh, Zh. 
^Liquids, L, R. 



stimology: vowels: classes. 209 



Classes of Towels. 

502. The Classes of Vowels are determined by the place of conden- 
sation of the breath. 
The place may be at the lips, the upper throat, or the lower throat. 
503. They are hence divided into Lip-Vowels, Head- Vowels, and Chest- Vowels. 

504. Lip- Vowels are those formed by the breath passing through a 
greater or smaller opening between the lips. The orifice is formed by the 
contraction of the lips in a circular form. They are found in the sounds 
of O, in not; 0, in rose; OO, in ooze. To these may be added the semi- 
vowel W, as heard in we. The orifice is greater for the first of these 
sounds, and becomes less to the last. 

505. He ad- Vowels are those formed by the breath passing through a 
greater or smaller opening in the upper throat. The orifice is formed by 
the approach of the back of the tongue toward the palate. They are 
found in the sounds of E, in egg ; I, in it; and EE, in eel. To these may 
be added the semi- vowel Y, as heard in ye. The orifice is greater for the 
first of these sounds, and becomes less to the last. 

506. Chest- Vowels are those formed by the breath passing through 
a greater or smaller opening in the lower throat. The orifice is formed 
by the greater or less approach of the base of the tongue to the back of 
the throat. Chest- Vowels are found in the sound of AH, as in arm; of 
AW, as in awe; of A, in at; of U, in cur. To these may be added the 
semi- vowel H, as heard in he. The orifice is greater for the first of these 
sounds, and becomes less to the last. 

Such are the classes of vowels. They are Lip, Head, and Chest Vowels. 
They are seen in the following list : 

Lip Vowels, o in not, o in rose, 00 in ooze, W. 

Head Vowels, e in et, i in it, ee in eel, Y. 

Chest Vowels, a in arm, aw in awl, a in at, u in ur, . . ,IL 

50*7. We are next to consider the subdivisions of these classes -of con- 
sonants and vowels. 

Before this, however, the learner should make himself familiar with these classes, 
by an exercise under the following rule. 

Eule. — State to which class each letter belongs in the words of the fol- 
lowing list, and give the reasons. 

e.g. : In the word POD, P is a consonant, because it requires contact for its form- 
ation. It is a Labial Consonant, because it requires contact of the lips. is a vowel, 
because the organs are not brought in contact for its formation. It is a lip vowel, be- 
cause made by the approach of the lips. D is a consonant, because its formation re 
quires contact of the organs. It is a dental, because the contact is that of the tip of 
the tongue with the arch of the mouth. 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



List of Words for Exercise, 

Bob, pod, boot, moon, fool, rose, broken, vanish, tartar, dig, din, deem, no, so, we, 
woo, war, wall, zebnv, thistle, those, sap, thou, thee, kill, riug, sing, gag, log, lag, 
charm, chart, jam, jelly, sheep, azure, lop, lip, lap, ye, yell, he, hat, murk, fur, bawl f 
pat, farm, ten. 



Subdivisions op the Classes of Consonants and Towels. 
Sec. 3. — Subdivisions of the Glasses of Consonants. 

508. Subdivisions of consonants are based on 1, the closeness of con, 
tact ; and 2, direction of the breath imprisoned by contact. 

509. The contact may have degrees of closeness. This may be com" 
plete or partial. 

The subdivision thus formed is into Concludents and Continuants. 

510. Concludents are consonants formed when the contact of the 
organs is complete, and no breath passes from the mouth at the instant 
of forming the sound, e. g. : P, and B, are Concludents. When P and 
B are sounded at the end of a word, as in lop, rib, the lips are completely 
closed, and no breath passes while those letters are in formation. They 
are therefore called Concludents, because the breath does not continue, 
but is concluded. 

511. Continuants are consonants formed when the contact of the or- 
gans is not complete, but partial, and a small portion of breath passes 
from the mouth through a very narrow aperture during the sound, e.g.: 
¥ and Y, (ef and ev) are Continuants. When we make the sounds repre- 
sented by f, and v, as in if far, van, give, a narrow aperture is left between 
the lower lip and the upper teeth, or lip. Some breath is passing there 
during the formation of these sounds. They are therefore called Continu- 
ants, because some breath continues to pass. 

512. Concludents and Continuants are found in the different classes of 
consonants — Labials, Dentals, Gutturals, Linguals, Liquids. 

In Labials, P, B, M, are concludents ; F and V continuants. 

In Dentals, T, D, N, are concludents. S, Z, TH hard, and Th, soft, are continuants. 

In Gutturals, K, G hard, and Ng, are concludents. The correspondent continuants 
are no longer sounded in Engiish, though they were formerly in Saxon, and are still in 
German. We retain the memory of them in our spelling, by the letters gh in such 
words as night, light, through. The sound is made by giving a like aperture between 
the tongue and the palate, to that made between lip and teeth when we sound F. (It 
is given in German by the final sounds of luch &ndfleissig.) 

In Linguals, CH, and J, are concludents. SH, and ZH as in azure, are continuants. 

In Liquids are no concludents. L and R are continuants, because, in their form* 
ation, breath passes through the mouth. 



etymology: consonants. 211 

It is true that breath passes through the nose in forming M and N. But the defi- 
nition given above requires breath to pass from the mouth to form a true continuant. 

Such is the subdivision of consonants, based on closeness of contact. It is a subdi- 
vision into concludents and continuants. We may thus condense the view of them : 
Labials, Dentals, Gutturals, Linguals. Liquids. 
Concludents, P, B, M. T, D, N. K, G, Ng. CH, J. 

Continuants, F, V. S, Z, TH, Th. (Ch, g. Germ.) SH, Zh. L, R. 

613. The second subdivision of the classes of consonants is based on the direction of 
p-essure given to the intercepted breath among the vocal chords. 

e.g. : When we close the lips in the formation of P, at the end of a syllable, as in 
the words Up, up, rap, top, a certain amount of breath is intercepted in the mouth, 
and pressed among the vocal chords toward the lips. When we make the sound rep- 
resented by B, as in the words rib, crab, rob, tub, the lips are closed precisely in the 
same manner as for P, and we hold intercepted breath in the same manner. But in 
sounding this latter, (that is B.) the pressure on that breath is directed, not towa*d 
the lips, as before, but toward the chest, so as to put in vibration the vocal chords 
which run in that direction. This causes the pectoral murmur, heard when a person 
dwells long on the sound of B, at the end of a syllable. Again, when we sound M at 
the end of a syllable, as in am, him, rim, dim, the lips are closed precisely as they are 
for the sounds of the two other letters, and the breath is intercepted, but a different 
direction is given to it. The imprisoned breath is now directed toward the nose, so 
as to make the vocal chords vibrate which run in that direction. Breath is felt to pass 
through the nose in sounding M. Three different pressures are thus seen to be given 
to the breath imprisoned by the contact of the lips : one toward the lips, one toward 
the chest, and one toward th,e nose. 

The same fact observed in these three letters, is seen in all the classes of consonants — 
in Labials, Dentals, Gutturals, Linguals, and Liquids. 

514. The second subdivision of consonants, based on this fact, is into 
Orals, Pectorals, and Nasals. 

515. Orals are consonants, formed when the intercepted breath is 
pressed directly toward the mouth, before expulsion : P (ep) is an example. 

516. Pectorals are consonants, formed when the intercepted breath 
is pressed toward the chest, before expulsion : B (eb) is an example. 

517. Nasals are consonants, formed when the intercepted breath is 
pressed toward the nose before expulsion from the mouth : M (em) is 
an example. 

Orals, Pectorals, and Nasals, are found in the different classes, as is seen in the fol- 
lowing tabular view : 

Labials, Dentals, 

Orals, 1. P, F, T, S, TH hard, 

Pectorals, 2. B, V, D, Z, Th soft, 

Nasals, 3. M, N, 

In the class of Labials, P and F are Orals, B and V are Pectorals, and M is the Na- 
sal. In other words, P reverberated in the chest, forms B, and in the nose, M. F, 
reverberated in the chest, forms V. 

In the class of Dentals, T, S, and hard TH, are Orals ; D, Z, and soft Th, are Pec- 
torals ; and N, is the Nasal. That is to say, T reverberated in the chest, forms D, 
and in the nose, N. S, reverberated in the chest, forms Z. TH hard, (as in the word 
thick.) reverberated in the chest, forms Th soft, as in these* 

In the class of Gutturals, K is the Oral ; hardG, (as heard in gag,) is the Pectoral ; 
Ng, (as heard in ring,) is the Nasal. K, reverberated in the chest, forms G hard, and 
in the nose, Ng. 

* Hard TH is represented by two capitals ; the soft, by a capital and small h. 



Gutturals, 


Linguals, 


Liquids, 


K, 


CH, SH, 





G,hard, 


J, Zh, 


L, R, 


Ng, 







212 



ENGLISH GKAMMAB. 



In the class of Ltnguals, CH, and SH, are Orals. J, and Zh (as heard in azure), are 
Pectorals. That is to say, CH, (as in chair,) forms, when reverberated in the chest, 
the sound of J, (ej.) SH, (as heard in ship,) forms, when reverberated in the chest, 
the sound of Zh, (as heard in azure.) 

In Liquids, L and R are Pectorals. When dwelt upon, the pectoral murmur from 
reverberation in the chest, can be distinctly perceived. 

By looking at the tabular view above, horizontally, we may see, in the first row, the 
Orals ; m the second, the Pectorals ; and in the third, the Nasals. By looking verti- 
cally, we may see, for each oral, its correspondent pectoral and nasal. 

Such is the second subdivision of the classes of consonants founded on the direction 
of pressure given to intercepted breath. It is a subdivision into Orals, Pectorals, and 
Nasals. 

518. The whole subject of consonants can now be brought into a condensed tabular 
view : 



I. 

Sounds are made by 



'Breath arrested by contact of the l PrtW£MW1 „-, 
organs, forming JU>nsonahts. 

Breath not arrested, but con- 1 vowels. 
densed in passing, forming j vvrbus. 



CONCLUDENTS. CONTINUANTS. 



n. 

CLASSE3 0P 

Consonants 

are de- 
termined by 
place of 
contact, 
whether 



'Lip f ormin g 1 , Labials , , 



rTip 



Tongue, «j Middle 
its 



2, Dentals 

3, Gutturals, 
4yI4nguals, 









1st 2d 






m 


Order. 


Order. 




m 








"3 




rt 




a 






u 












Ol 


o 


m 


o 




o 


















*c5 


o 


c3 


o 


efl 


O 


i? 




<x> 




<x> 




<u 


fc 


o 


Ph 


O 


Pn 


o 


^ 


M. 


p. 


B. 


F. 


V. 






N. 


T. 


D. 


S. 


z. 


TH. 


Th. 


Ng, 


K. 


G. 


0f>. 


$ 








CH. 


J. 


SH. 


Zh. 







fOn each side of thefr 
. Whole body 1 ' 5, Liquids,. I tongue, forms \ ' 



of which, breath -j 
1 



passing I Along hollowed middle ( R 
^ of the tongue, forms \ ' 



III. 

Subdivisions 
of 

Consonants 
are deter- 
mined by 



I Closeness of contact 



ci. Wit: 

(2. Wit! 



2. Direction of breath 
intercepted by - 
contact, 



With no aperture, forming Conctudents. 
With small aperture, " Continuants. 

f 1. Towards Head and Nose, " Nasals. 

2, " Mouth and Lips, " Orals. 

3. " Chest and Tlu-oat " Pectorals. 



vowels: subdivisions: simple. 213 

Sec. 4. — Subdivisions of the Classes of Vowels, 

519. Vowels are Simple or Compound. 

520. A Simple Vowel sound is one in which the same sound is heard 
from the beginning to the close ; as, ah, eel, moor. 

521. A Compound Yowel sound is one in which two or more simple 
vowel sounds can be heard between the beginning and the close, as in 
boy, isle, buoy. 

522. Every Simple Yowel can be long or short. 

523. A Compound Yowel is always long. 

524. As the classes of vowels are based on the place of condensation 
of the breath, so the subdivisions are based on the degree of condensation. 

1. Simple Yowels. 

Simple Yowels are subdivided into 1, Semi- Vowels, 2, Primary; 
and 3, Secondary. 

525. The degrees of condensation of the breath, by degrees of ap- 
proach in the organs, are most, less, and least. 

Semi- Vowels are those of greatest condensation of the breath by the 
nearest approach which the organs can make without contact. The 
semi- vowels are W, Y, and H. W, belongs to the class of lip-vowels ; 
Y, to head-vowels ; H, to chest- vowels. Their sounds are heard in we, 
ye, he. 

"W, Y, and IT are sometimes regarded and used as consonants. 

526. Primary Vowels are those made by great condensation of the 
breath, with rather less approach of the organs than is required by semi- 
vowels. The primary vowels are oo, as heard in ooze ; ee in eel ; and u, 
as heard in cur, fur. Of these, oo, belongs to the lip-vowels ; ee, to 
head-vowels ; u, in cur, to chest- vowels. 

527. Secondary Vowels are those requiring less condensation of 
the breath, and less approach of the organs than either semi-vowels or 
primaries. The secondaries in lip- vowels are o in rose, and o in not, the 
last being the most open. The secondaries in head- vowels are i in it, 
and e in et, the last being the most open. The secondaries in the chest- 
vowels are a in at, aw in awl, and the sound of ah in arm. Of these, 
the last is the most open, and that which is next to the last, more open 
than that before it. 



214 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK, 



We thus arrive at the following arrangement of the simple vowels : 



Degrees of Approach, 



[ Chest " 
Subdivisions, 



Closest, 




w 

Y 
H 



Less Close, 
1 



oo in ooze, 
ee in eel, 
u in ur, 



Open, 
2 



More Open, 
3 



Most Open. 
4 



o in rose, ,o in not, 
i in it, e in et, 
a in at, Jaw in awl, 



a m arm 



Semi-V. Primary. 



Secondary. 



By reading this table horizontally, the simple vowels will be seen in their classes, 
and the degrees of opening will be found increasing in each class by reading to the 
right. The sound of ah is thus seen to be the most open, indicating the reason why 
it is placed at the head of so many alphabets. 

By reading the table vertically, the subdivisions of vowels will be seen, and those 
of the same degree of approach and condensation will be found in one column to- 
gether. The degrees are numbered from zero, as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. The simple vowels 
may be represented by attaching these numbers to the letters 1, h, c, for lip, head, 
chest. 

Such are the subdivisions of Simple Vowels, viz. : Semi- Vowels, Pri- 
maries, Secondaries. 

(2.) Vowels, as Long or Short. 

528. The length of a sound depends on the time of its continuance. 

529. Simple vowels are long or short. (522.) 

530. Each short vowel is made long when followed by the liquid 
consonant R, which prolongs the preceding sound. Thus, a in bat, be- 
comes long, in bare. 

531. Each long vowel is made short when placed before some conso- 
nant, which necessarily shortens the sound, as in ap, at, ek. 

532. Continuants tend to lengthen, and concludents to shorten the 
previous vowel sound. The reason is, that breath continues to pass in 
the first, but not in the second. 

533. The vowels thus formed are seen in the following table. All in 

the first line are long. Below each long will be seen its correspondent 

short. The marks for long and short are —, u : 

rnoir) C vch: 
meik. 

(bat 



bull J [machine J (cup J (yoke J (not J (it J ( met J (bat J (on J (past J 



Lip 



Head, Chest, 



Lip, 



Head, 



Chest, 



Primaries. Secondaries. 

534. Every Simple Vowel sound may be represented, when desired, by attaching 
the mark for long or short to the letter representing the class, and also the figure re- 
presenting the subdivision. Thus, 1, 2, — , represents in rose, more, tore. It is the 
lip-vowel, numbered two, made long. 



vowels: compound: formation. 215 

(3.) Compound Vowel Sounds. 
(a.) Effect, from Prolongation, on Simple Vowel Sounds. 

535. When the secondary vowel sounds of any class are very much 
prolonged, they terminate in the sound of the primary vowel of that 
class. 

Thus, the lip-vowels terminate in oo, as will be found by prolonging o. 

The head-vowels terminate in ec, as will be seen by prolonging i, or e, as heard in 
%t,et. 

The chest-vowels terminate in the sound of u, in ur, as will be seen by prolonging 
ah, awe, and short a, as heard in at. 

There is a reason . As the sound is prolonged, the breath is exhausted, and tho 
organs are drawn nearer together to condense the breath which is left. This con- 
traction produces the primary vowel sounds. 

The fact can be witnessed by experiment in singing, or in calling to one at a distance. 

It is tho case in the vowel sounds in all languages. 

The formation of the compound vowel sounds in all languages is di- 
rected by this rule of nature. 

(b.) Formation of Compound Vowels, 

536. A Compound Yowel sound is one produced by the combination 
of two or more simple vowel sounds. 

Two of the simples form a diphthong, and three a triphthong. 

53*7. Compound vowels are smooth or broken. 

538. Smooth Compound Vowels are those which terminate with a 
primary vowel sound, as in the word boy. They are called smooth, be- 
cause the simple sounds coalesce in one vocal emission. 

In the English language are six smooth compound vowels. 

Two of them terminate in the sound of the Primary Lip-Yowel — that 
of oo, in ooze. These two are heard in the words use and our. 

Four of these terminate in the sound of the Primary Ilea d- Yowel— 
that of ee, in eel. These four are heard in the words isle, day, hoy, buoy. 

They and their constituents may be seen in the following represent- 
ation. The mark + represents combination. On the left, the sounds 
terminate in the Lip-Primaries j and on the right, in those of the Head. 



u, in wse=ee+oo. 
ou, in our=ah+oo. 



I, in isle=ah+i+ee. 
a, in cfttt/=e(in et) +i+ee. 
ov, in 6o?/=aw + 1 + eo. 
uoy, in huoy—oo+i + ee. 



Obs. — The English language does not present any compounds terminating in the 
primary chest vowel, except as tho result of careless and vulgar pronunciation. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When one says, I see yu, for I see you, the combination in the last word is this : 
yu *a ee + u, short. 

In French, however, this is used as in the word lieu, (not the plural lieuz)=ee+\i. 

The same two sounds are reversed in the second syllable of cercueil=u+ee. This 
combination belongs, therefore, to^the second and right column. 

The sound of eu long, as in euxjeune, belongs to the first column. It terminates in 
the lip semi-vowel, represented in French by u, and in English by w. This is pre- 
ceded by the sound of e in et. The combination, therefore, is = e (in et) + oo + 
French. 

(c.) Broken Compound Vowels. 

539. Broken Compound Vowels are those in which the sound of a 
primary, (or of its semi- vowel,) precedes the final sound or sounds ; as 
you, ye, year, way. 

Such vowel sounds are heard in the English language spoken, but do not always 
appear in that language when it is written. They are often represented by using 
one of the semi-vowels as if it were a consonant, and hence with a following vowel. 
For example, if we combine ee with ah, we represent the combination by Y, used as 
a consonant, with a, as in the word yard. If we combine oo + aw + r, we represent 
the combination by war. If we combine ah + oo + ay, we write the word away. 

This is not the case, however, in all languages, as, for example, in the French. 
There the vowel sounds are represented more frequently by vowel letters. The com- 
bination represented in English by w, e, = we is given to the eye in French by o, u, i 
«=oo + ee. When we pass from a lip- vowel to a chest-vowel, we may represent the 
transition, in English, by w, as in towards, but the French simply place vowel letters, 
as in tua. 

The reason for using the name broken compound vowels, and for saying that a pri- 
mary, or its semi-vowel, precedes, is now evident from these examples. 

They are called broken, because the sounds of the simple vowels do 
not coalesce in one unbroken emission of the voice. Thus, if we com- 
bine oo + ah, there are two distinct actions of the organs ; for the one, 
with the lips, and for the other, in the chest. 

540. There must be a primary, or its semi- vowel, because in passing 
from one of these independent sounds to the other, the organs must 
contract, and so form a primary, or its semi- vowel. Thus, in passing 
from ee to ah, we form the semi-vowel y, and represent it in yard. 

Illustrations can be seen in the following list. The French words separate the sounds 
in syllables. The English unite them in one. 

English : French : 

oo+ah=wah (no word,) jou-at, saluat. 

" aw=wall, lou-ons, salu-ant. 

" at=wax, jou-a, tou-a. 

" ur=word, lu-eur. 

" eWwet, fou-et, bludt. 

" it=wit, The vowel sound is not in French. 

" ee=weal, ou-ie, lui. 

" ot=wander, saluons. 

" ore»wore, 



DELATIONS OF VOWELS TO CONSONANTS. 217 



English : 


French : 


00 +00= woo, 


bou-eQx, vertu-eux. 


ee+ab==yard, 


confiat 


» aw=yawn, 




" at=yam, 


confi-a. 


" ur=yerk, 


li-im." 


" et=yet, 


inqui-et. 


1 ' it=no word , as y ill, 




" ec=year, 




« ot=yot, 


idi-ot. 


ore=yore, 


mater i-aux. 




Alpi-ou. 



Sec. 5. — Relations of the Glasses of Vowels to the Classes of Consonants. 



541. By the gradual loosening and opening of the organs of speech, 

1. The Labial Consonants pass into Lip- Vowels ; 

2. The Dental, Lingual, and Liquid Consonants pass into Head- 
Vowels ; 

3. The Guttural Consonants pass into Chest- Vowels. 

The order is seen in the following tabular view. The greatest con- 
traction of the organs is indicated by positions on the left, and the 
greatest expansion by positions on the right. 



Consonants pass into 



Semi- Vowels and Vowels. 



Throat 



Labials, -J p, b, m, f, v, " W,j ooze, ore, not, JLi? 

Dentals, ( C C 

Linguals, < t, d,n, s, z, TH, Th,ch,j,sh, zh, r,l,....Y,^ eel, it, et, -J' 

Liquids, ( ( (, 

Gutturals, j k, g, ng, ©f), g, to H, j ur, at, awl, ah, | Chest. 

The lips, for example, are most open at the sound of in not, on the extreme right. 
They contract in all the sounds passing to the left till they form the English semi • 
vowel, W, equivalent to the French vowel, U. The lips then form partial contact for 
V and F. Then follows complete contact for M, B, and P. Thus, the greatest stiffness 
of the vocal chords is in P, on the extremest left, because in P there is no reverber- 
ation. 

This process with the lips is repeated at the other places of formation. 

Such is the order of nature. The process for the organs of speech, in their differ- 
ent positions, is similar. What is done at the lips for consonants and vowels, is re- 
peated on the tongue, and in the upper and lower throat. The process is one. Its 
simplicity is remarkable. There is complete contact, or crevice or opening in differ- 
ent degrees. Arrested breath is pressed so as to be without or with reverberation 
against contact or crevice, forming consonants. Condensed breath is directed through 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the opening, forming vowels of different degrees to the most open, till any farther 
condensation of breath for a vowel sound becomes impossible. 

Obs. 1. As all men's organs are the same, there is a common process of speech in 
all languages. Men represent the sounds differently, in written letters in their alpha- 
bets, but essentially, the sounds are alike in all tongues. They may have some modi- 
fications borrowed from music, in Pitch, Force, or Time ; the R may be rolling or 
smooth ; the vowels long o^short ; but, fundamentally, the sounds are one, made by 
this common and simple process. There are some combinations in one, which are 
not in another, but the simple sounds of those combinations are the same. 

Obs. 'J. Inspection of the table shows why certain effects accompany particular 
modes of making the sounds. 

(1.) One effect is from exhaustion of the breath. 

If the Primary Vowels, ee, and oo, be drawn out to exhaustion, there will be heard 
in their termination the sound of the Primary Chest Vowel, that of u in ur. 

Any vowel drawn out to perfect exhaustion, will terminate in the same sound, that 
of u in ur. 

The reason is, that as the breath is becoming exhausted, it is withdrawn from all 
places but the lower throat. The sound there formed is that of u in ur. 

The same effect is produced by carelessness, by great fatigue, by weakness, and by 
any cause which relaxes the organs too much for a full sound. 

Every pure vowel sound can degenerate in rapid or slovenly speaking into this Pri- 
mary Chest- Vowel. 

This is seen in such instances as pu-ta-tu, for potato ; Injuns, for Indians ; Creatur, 
for Cre-a-tor ; too-tur, for tutor ; Shall I give it tu yu ? for Shall I give it to you ? A 
prevalent fault is thus seen, which is to be avoided. To preserve the language in its 
purity, the tendency to that sound in final syllables must be checked. It is vulgar. 

This is also seen when one language is derived from another. All pure vowel sounds 
degenerate in the derived language into this sound of u. Thus, the Latin il-le, has 
passed, in French, into le, pronounced with the Primary Chest-Vowel. 

(2.) Another effect is by the passing of the tongue from a position for one sound to 
theposition requisite for a second. It often gives the intermediate sound. 

Thus, in passing from the tip of the tongue when sounding t, or d, to its back for 
sounding ee, or y, the middle of the tongue is brought near the arch of the mouth, so 
as to form ch, or j, or sh. Hence, na-ture is pronounced na-chure ; question, ques- 
chon ; nation, na shon ; natural, nat-chu-ral ; and some improperly give educate, the 
sound ed-ju-cate. Ey looking at the position of the organs, we see the reason why 
we pronounce in this manner. 

The same tendency to pass into the adjoining sound is seen in all languages. Thus, 
in French, 1 has passed into the sound of y in some cases, because it is the next sound 
to 1 in the opening movement of the tongue. Fusillade is sounded by some as fu-zee- 
yad. In other cases, the sound of y mingles with that of 1, in what is called the liquid 
sound. T, has become S, as in nation, pronounced na-se-dn. 

"We thus see why certain sounds represented in written language have passed into 
other sounds in the language spoken. Thus, in English, hough Is sounded hok. The 
German Ch, heard in Saxon, has passed into k, which is the next sound in the throat.- 

(3.) Another effect is seen in the union of consonant sounds which oelong to the same 
subdivision. 

Orals join with Orals, and Pectorals with Pectorals, in the same syllable. 

Thus, in the words sobs, stags, the s at the end is turned into the sound of z, be- 
cause eb, and eg, that is b, and hard g, are Pectorals. The sound given is that of 



SUMMARY OF VOCAL ELEMENTS. 219 

eobz and stagz. So in the words liked, looked, tossed, asked, the final d is sounded as 
t, because the previous consonant is an Oral. Hence, we sound these words, likct, 
looket, tost, asvt. Thus, we say egz-am-ine, and not ex-am-ine, x » ks. S is sound- 
ed as z. Therefore, k becomes g hard, as in egg. 

The reason why we speak in this manner is evident. We have pressed the breath 
in a particular direction for the first consonant, and we cannot change the direction 
before giving the next consonant, as we do not make a new syllable. 

This tendency to unite consonants of the same class runs through the Indo-European 
languages. The student of Greek is familiar with it. It is carried very far in Sanscrit . 

In English, Nasals often have the same efftet with Pectorals, and turn an Oral into 
a Pectoral. Thus, we say nounz, hangz, ringz, hymnz, psalmz, when the spelling is 
nouns, hangs, rings, hymns, psalms. S is turned into z, by the previous sound. 

(4.) Another effect is seen by directing part of the breath in a Simple Vowel sound 
toward the nose. 

As the breath is condensed in forming a vowel sound, there is a portion held back 
which we may press toward the nose as we do in making a Naeal consonant. If wo do 
so, we form a Nasal Vowel. A Nasal Vowel is a vowel breathed through the nose. 
Nasal Vowels do not appear in English, but in French. The vowel sounds breathed 
in this manner are, three of the Chest-Vowels, (u in up, a in at, and aw in awl,) and 
one, the most open of the Lip-Vowels, that of o in not. They are represented ia French 
by un, In, an, eta. 

SUMMARY. 

642. The Elementary Sounds are ,^^. ir . . ,,., . ,, ,,..„. LJ ■ , . 36 

Consonants, 23 

Vowels, .13 



Op Coxsonaxts, 

The Labials are, P, B, M, F, V, ? ,. . ... . ,,. . . . . 5 

" Dentals, arc T, D, N, S, Z, TH hard,Th soft, 7 

" Gutturals, are K, G hard, Ng, German Ch, g final, 5 

" Linguals, are CH, J, SH, Zh, 4 

" Liquids, are R, L, 2 

23 

Of Vowels, 

Semi- Vowels: Lip, W ; Head, Y; Chest, H, ,,. r . ™... 3 

Simple Primary : Lip, 00 ; Head, EE ; Chest, UR, 8 

Secondary : Lip, rose, not ; Head, it, ct ; Chest, at, awl, 6 

Most Open Secondary, Chest, ah, 1 

13 

Each Simple Vowel may be long or short, thus making twice thirteen ■= 26 

Compound Smooth Vowels in English, 6 

543. The eleventh attainment in language, in its first part, is ability to 
state the mode for forming perfectly every sound in English, and also in all 
languages^ if the correspondent sound or sounds in English be given. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The deficiency to be obviated is incorrectness, or difficulty in forming 
English or foreign sounds. 
Directions. — Parse phonetically by stating how each sound is formed. 

The following example will illustrate this process : 

e. g. : P, as in ep, is a Consonant, Labial, Concludent, Oral, made by close contact of 
the lips, and by pressing tlie arrested breath toward the mouth without reverberation. 

The reason may then be given in a few cases. 

P, is a Consonant, because made by contact of the organs ; a Labial, because made 
by contact of the lips ; a Concludent, because the contact is complete, and no breath 
passes at the instant of forming the sound. It is an Oral, because made without pec- 
toral or nasal reverberation. 

B, is a Consonant, Labial, Concludent, Pectoral, made by the same contact of the 
lips as for P, and by pressing the arrested breath toward the chest, with reverber- 
ation, on the vocal chords. 

M, is a Consonant, Labial, Concludent, Nasal, made by the same contact of the lips 
as for P, and by pressing the arrested breath toward the nose, with reverberation. 

F, is a Consonant, Labial, Continuant, Oral, made by loose contact of the lower lip 
against the upper teeth, allowing a smaU portion ot breath to escape, and by pressing 
the remaining arrested breath toward the mouth and lips, without reverberation. 

V, is a Consonant, Labial, Continuant, Pectoral, made by the same position of the 
lips as for F, and by pressing the arrested breath toward the chest, with reverber- 
ation. 

W, as a Consonant, is a Labial, next in order to V. 

W, is a Semi-Vowel, and the next sound on the lips to the Consonant V. It is formed 
by projecting the lips, and contracting them so as to form a small circular opening. 
The breath passing through this opening is highly condensed, and forms the sound. 
It is longer as in woo, and shorter as in wet. A similar position forms the French c\ 
long. 

Sec. 6. — Representation of Sounds. 

The same elementary sound is differently represented in the words of 
the English language, e.g. : The sound of ee in eel, the Primary Head- 
Yowel, is represented in letters by ey, ei, ie, ea, ce, e-e, ea, eo, i, oe ; as 
in hey, deceit, field, seat, Cozsar, mete, seat, people, machine, antoecL Some 
of these are the long, and some are the short sound of ee. Lists of 
words of different spelling, but with the same vowel sound, will be 
found in the Appendix. 

The sound which meets the ear, and the letters seen by the eye, are 
thus two distinct objects for attention. The custom of the mind should 
be to regard these separately. 

544. For a good pronunciation of our own, or of any language, the habit should be 
formed of fixing the attention singly on the sound, independently of the various let- 
ters which may represent it. The contrary disposition to look to the letters, and to 
confound them with the sound, which is very common, and the most effectual hind- 
rance to acquiring sounds, should bo overcome. 



f oa, oo, 
•< as oar, 
(^ ' sew 



REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS. 221 

The remedy is simple. It consists in writing, in two distinct places, the letters, 
and the common sound represented by those letters. 
For example : 

Sound represented =» Letters representing. 

in rose, =» (oa, oo, ow, o-e, au, eau, ew, ou. 

, door, crow, bore, hautboy, beau, 
sew, pour.* 

545. Instead of representing the sound by letters, we may adopt a system of signs 
for the sounds common to all languages. 

Such a system is the following, which is equally applicable to the English, and to 
every other language. 

1. To represent Consonants : 

1. For the Classes of Consonants— Have two parts in the marks, one representing 
the Passive, and the other the Active organs, in the position requisite for the sound. 

2. For the Subdivisions of Consonants, as Concludents or Continuants — For Conclu- 
dents, put the two parts in contact ; and for Continuants, put a small space between. 
For Continuants of the first order, put one dot in that space ; and for those of the 
second order, as for th, two dots. 

S. For the Subdivisions of Consonants, as Orals, Pectorals, Nasals— Represent the 
direction of the breath by an arrow attached to the sign of the class. The direction 
will be horizontal for Orals, downward for Pectorals, and upward for Nasals. For 
the Orals, the arrow will bo straight, as indicating the absence of reverberation ; and 
for Pectorals and Nasals, where there is reverberation, it will be curved. 

4. For the Two Liquids, L and R— Let the upper part of the mark represent the 
arch of the mouth, and the lower by a line, the direction of the breath. For L, the 
hair-line will fork to indicate the passing of breath on each side of the tongue. For 
R, it will curve to represent the flowing of the breath along the hollowed tongue. 
The rough r, made by slaps of the tongue, will be represented by dots, or small cross- 
marks on the line. The pectoral 1 , and r, by the arrow curving downward. 

Thus, the Consonant sounds of all languages may be represented. 

2. To represent Vowels : 

3 . For the Classes of Vowels — Represent the Lip-Vowels by a circle ; the Head- 
Vowels by an oval, horizontally extended ; the Chest- Vowels, by an oval vertically ex- 
tended. 

2. For the Subdivisions of Vowels, as Semi- Vowels, Primary, Secondary — Represent 
the degrees of opening by figures, the highest figure indicating the more open vowel 
sound. Attach these figures to the signs of the class, giving zero to the Semi-Vowels ; 
No. 1 to the Primaries, and the other numbers to the Secondaries. 

3. For the Distinctions of Long and Short Vowel Sounds— Place the common marks 
for long and short, (a straight line, and a curve) over the sign. 

4. For Compound Vowel Sounds — Write the signs for the Simple Vowel Sounds that 
are combined, and put the mathematical mark + between them. 

Thus, the vowel sounds in English, and in other languages, may be represented. 

* The pupil can apply the same plan to any other languages for their pronunciation. He will simply 
write, on the left, the Bound, and on the right the letters, in different languages, representing that 
common sound. 

LETTERS. 
Sound, Frknch, Gkrman, 

I an, eo, eau, I 
aw,ow, oh, oo. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There will thus be one invariable representation of the sounds of human speech, as 
they are fixed by nature. 

By this standard, the sounds in English, and other languages, may be exactly 
analyzed, and the usual difficulties of learners lessened. 

Its applications for the perfecting of pronunciation, in singing, in reading, and in 
declamation, are evident and important. 

Alphabet. 

546. "We can now understand our Alphabet. 

In the Alphabet, we may consider the number of its letters ; their names ; their 
forms, when written ; and their order. 

547. (a.) Number. — The letters of the English Alphabet are twenty- 
six in number. 

By this number, there are both deficiency and superfluity in representing ele- 
mentary sounds. 

There is deficiency. The English Alphabet has no separate character for the sound 
of th, though such an one is possessed by the Greek and the Saxon. It has none for 
the sounds en, and sn, while the Russian has. It has none for zh, in azure, measure; 
nor for ng, nor for each simple vowel sound. 

There is superfluity. One elementary sound is represented by more than one writ- 
ten character. J, and g soft, as in jam, gem, have precisely the same sound. But two 
letters j, and G, represent that sound, c, in cent, and s, in sent, havo the same sound, 
but two representatives, c, in call, and k, in kill, give one sound, while the signs are 
two. x, pronounced eks, is made up of two simple sounds, k and s, which are repre- 
sented separately in the Alphabet, q, as heard in " queer, " pronounced kiveer, is com- 
posed of two simple sounds, k and w, which are represented separately in the Alpha- 
bet. 

This irregularity results from the manner in which the English lan- 
guage has been formed. 

(6.) Names. 

548. The names of the letters, when spoken, were formed at first by 
the following simple rules : 

(1 .) Letters which represent the sound of Consonants, take the vowel 
e, with the sound of the consonant, e. g. : We say, be, de, em : not 
bay, day, aim, for B, D, M. 

(2.) Concludents put the vowel after the sound of the Consonants, 
but Continuants before ; as the sound pe, not ep, for the letter P ; but 
the sound ef, not/e, for the letter F. 

(3.) Letters which represent the sound of vowels, or semi- vowels, 
take those sounds as their names ; as, o, u. 

In the course of ages, innovations have been made on these simple rules, and fre- 
quently to the injury of the pronunciation. 

In Consonants, another vowel than e, has been used to name j, k, q, and r. In Semi- 
Vowels, the name eh, for II, has been changed to aitch; oo-oo, for W, to double U ; 



NAMES OF ALPHABETIC LETTEES. 



223 



ami AJi-ee, for Y to wy. In Vowels, the true namo of the first letter, which is ah, as it 
is in all languages, has beea dropped, and the old name of e put in its place. E, 1, 
and U, have been changed from their original sound. 

Most of these innovations are beyond remedy. Two of them, however, are such 
evident blunders from ignorance, that a correct usage should prevail. 1. Instead of 
jee, as the name for G, the name might be Ghe, giving the true sound of the Consonant. 
At present, the sound J is repeated in two letters. 2. Instead of or, as the namo of 
the letter R, the name might be err, with the sound heard in merry. 3. To these may 
be added the restoration of the true sound of the first letter of the Alphabet. 

The following table will show the application of the rule, the former names, and 
the innovations from time. 



CONSONANTS. 



VOWELS and SEMI- VOWELS 



Regarded as 

CONCLUDENTS. 
Letter. Old name. Pres.name. 

B, b-ee, 

C, c-ee, 

D, d-ec, 
gh-ee 
p-ce, 
t-ce, 
v-ee, 
z-ee, 



P, 
T > 

z, 



J, 

Q, 



same. 

same. 

same, 
jee. 

same. 

same. 

same, 
same, or 
zed, zhard, as is, 
called izzard. 

j-ee, j-ay. 

ku-ee, kee+oo. 
k-ee, kay. 



Regarded as 


> 




Continuants . 


Lette 


r. Old name. 


Pres.name. 


F, 


e-ff, 


same. 


L > 


e-11, 


same. 


M, 


e-mm, 


same. 


N > 


e-nn, 


same. 


R, 


e-rr, 


a-r. 


s, 


e-ss, 


same. 


x, 


e-ks, 


same. 



Letter. 
A, 
E, 
I, 
0, 
U, 
H, 
W, 



Old name, 
ah, 

ay, 

ec, 

°> 
oo, 
e h, 
u-u, 
ah-ee, 



Pres.name. 

ay. 

ee. 

ah + eo. 
same, 
ee + oo. 
aitch. 
d'blo u. 
wy. 



549. (c.) Written Form. — The form of the letters have been frequent- 
ly changed, in order to make a picture for the eye of the position of tho 
organs in making the sound, and also to give a similar form to letters of 
the same class. 

Thus, in English, seems designed to represent tho position of the lips in forming 
that vowel ; B, the two lips in profile, closed, as they are in the act of sounding that 
Consonant ; K, the touching of the back of the tongue to the palate ; T, tho touching 
of the tip of the tongue to the arch of the mouth ; A, the most open vowel sound. 
Also, B and P, both have a similar form, as if the intention has been to represent them 
as belonging to tho same class — that of Labials. The system, however, has been 
broken in the course of ages, so that few traces remain. 

550. (<£) Order. — In the Alphabets of Europe, including the ancient 
Greek and Latin, the order of the letters is derived from the Shemitic 
family of languages, though the words of those languages are drawn 
from the Indo-European, or Arian family. The English Alphabet is de- 
rived directly from the Latin. 

In this order, the letter A is first, and B second. Hence comes the 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

word Alphabet, made by combining the Greek names of the first two 
letters. 

The arrangement is one of the highest antiquity. It is said to have 
been originally based on Astronomy. 

The eleventh attainment in language, in its second part, is ability to dis- 
criminate between the sound for the ear, and the letters which represent that 
sound for the eye, and to detect the same sound, however it may be repre- 
sented. 

The deficiency to be obviated is the common disposition to be misled 
in the sound by the spelling. 

Directions. 

1. In any lists of words of like vowel sounds, but of different spelling, 
arrange together those which have the same sound, and state the class 
and subdivision of that vowel sound. 

Afterward, take any book, and in word after word, state and describe 
the vowel sound in each. 

For example, take the following words: 

Heart, aunt, ab, baa; guarantee, sergeant, shall, plaid, sirrah, Haerlem, Armagh; 
pain, gaol, day, there, great, reign, they, gauge; caul, awful, awe, walk, nor, broad, 
ought; Caesar, scat, deer, deceit, people, key, field, machine, antceci, turkois, impregn; 
again, Dcedalus, head, heifer, phlegm, friend, foetid, any, bury, leopard; captain 
breeches, surfeit, carriage, seive, tortoise, guilt, busy, cyst; hautbo}^, beau, yeoman, 
sew, groan, foe, floor, mould, show, owe, depot; what, George, cough; wool, wolf, 
would, construe; move, shoe, tour, manoeuvre, two; her, sir, won, flood, rough, does; 
aisle, height, eye, die, choir, guide, why, rye; beauty, feud, new, ewe, adieu, view, 
true, you, suit; voice, boy, house, now. 

2. Write, on the left, the vowel sound, with its class and number; on 
the right, the vowel letters which represent it, and exemplifying words. 
In reciting, describe the formation of the common sound. State the 
mode of representing it, and give some of the exemplifying words.* 

Long o, as in rose, is represented in beau, yeoman, sew, groan, foe, floor, mould, 
thow, owe, depot. 

* It is recommended that the same process be pursued by the pupil with every new 
language wheu acquiring pronucciation. 



W K D - B U I L D I £ G : SYLLABLKS. 225 



CHAPTER n. 

fORD-BuiLDIKO. 

1. Syllables, as Embodying Soimds, 

551. A syllable spoken is a vowel sound in speech, made 
by one impulse of the breath, with or without the sounds of 
Consonants ; as It-al-i-an, a-e-ri-al. 

552. A syllable written is a representation of a syllable 
spoken, and must contain at least one of the vowels of the 
alphabet. 

• The word syllable (ovv, Xafij3avG)) means taking together. 
It is taking together sounds which can form one vocal emission. 

553. There are, then, so many syllables in any word or sentence, not 
as there are of vowels written, but as there are of distinct vowel 
sounds. 

Thus, the word u you," has but one syllable, yet there are written two 
vowel letters, and one semi-vowel. There is but one syllable, because 
there is a smooth compound vowel sound : you=ee-+-oo. (538.) 

The word " serial" has four syllables for the four vowel letters written ; 
the word " Caesar " has two syllables for its three vowel letters written. 
Wo may represent the smooth compound vowel, ee+oo, by one vowel 
letter, as in ed-w-cate ; or by two, as in true, feud, suit ; or by three, as 
in bsau-ty, a-dieu. 

Where the vowel sounds do not coalesce, two dots are placed over 
as '• cooperate." 

554. As wo have seen, 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 
" two syllables " Diss} liable 
" three ;< " Trisyllable. 

11 many " " Polysyllable. 

To these we may add, 

A word of four syllables is called a Tetrasyllable. 



22G KNGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Tliia numbering may bo extended so far as is convenient 
Usually, we call all words of more than three, polysyllables. 
"Wo may apply the same phraseology, usually by the adjective, to a 
phrase, clause, sentence, or line of poetry. Thus, we may have a mono- 
syllabic sentence, as Go ; or octo-syllabic verse ; as, 

<l For ever be Thy name adored. " 

Such are syllables. 

The proper representation of syllables belongs to the Third Part of 
Grammar. 

2. Syllables, as Embodying Primitives. 

555. In "Word-Building, we find the sources of the syllables as they 
stand, by recurring to the primitive words from which they come. 

3. Primitives, as Forming Syllables. 

556. Word Building is that division of Grammar wliicli 
treats of the formation, from its sources, of every syllable in a 
word, and thus accounts for the whole form of the word. 

53*7. Word-Building, considered generally, presents the principles of 
formation for words. 

553. Word-Building, considered specially, presents the details neces- 
sary for practice in the formation of words. 

Sec. 1. — Principles of Formation in Derivatives and Compounds. 

559. In language, some words are formed, or built, from others. 

560. The formation of several words from one is called 
derivation, and the words so formed, Derivatives. That 
word from which they are formed is called their Primitive. 
e.g. : From just, are formed justly, justice. The two latter 
words are Derivatives. The first is a Primitive to them. 

561. The formation of one word from two or more, usually 
among the four material parts of speech, is called composition, 
and the word a Compound. Thus, rail-road, horse-hoof, 
breakfast, iron-bound, are compounds. The first combines 
two nouns ; the second, two nouns ; the third, a verb and 
lioun ; the fourth, a noun and adjective. Compounds are 
Primitives combined. 



derivation: generally. 227 

562. The law of tins formation is always the same. It is 
that sense and sound pass from any primitive or primitives, 
into all the derivatives and compounds. 

563. The rule for all verbal definitions is based upon this 
law. 

Verbal Definition is an explanation of the meaning of a 
word from its parts and structure. 

The rule for all Verbal Definitions is this : 

Analyze the word to be defined into its different parts. 
Trace these to their source, and find their meanings. Com- 
bine these meanings in a grammatical sentence, and thus form 
a Verbal Definition.. 

Thus, in Compounds, horse-hoof is the hoof of a horse. An iron-hound 
coast, is as if bound with iron. In Derivatives, justice is the state of 
being just; justly, in a just manner; ^justice, state of being not just; 
wrjustly, in a manner not just. 

564. This law, and this rule, will now be exemplified: 1st, in De- 
rivatives ; 2d, in Compounds, both generally and specifically. 

1. Derivation — Generally. 

565. Derivatives are words formed from some one primitive. 

566. The syllable representing that primitive is called the radical 
syllable ; as just, in " unjustly." 

567. The others are called affixes, or particles. Those affixes which 
are before the radical syllable, are called prefixes ; and those after, suf- 
fixes. In unjustly, un is a prefix ; ly, a suffix ; both affixes. 

568. Derivation can be illustrated by these examples : 

1. Metap/ior, metapftoric, metaphorical, metap7iorically ; from Greek 
((j)£QG)) phero, to bear. 

2. Pre/er, pre/errer, pre/erence, preferment, pre/erably, pre/erable- 
ness ; confer, defer, infer ; from the Latin, few, to bear. 

3. Support, supportable, supporfableness, supported, supporter, sup- 
porting, suppo?^less, insupportableness : from Latin, porto, to carry, or 
bear. 

4. Bear, bearing, burden, overbear, overbearing, overbearingly, over- 
• borne, xxnbear, underoear ; bier, bury, bearer ; from Saxon, baerau, which 

is from the Gothic, bairau, to bear. 

Greek Phero, (<££ow;) Latin, fero, and porto; Gothic, bairan, from 
Sanscrit YAR, to bear. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

569. Primitive Words, as more or less general, are Roots, Stem- Words, 
Branch- Words, and also Twig- Words, with correspondent Derivatives. 

In the example : 

(a.) VAR, (to bear,) is the Root. 

(b.) Phero, Gr. ; Fero, Porto, Lat. ; Bear, Eng., are Stem- Words, from 
that Root. 

(c.) Pre/er, con/er, defer, infer, are Branch- Words from one Stem- 
Word — Fer-o. 

(d.) Preference, preferment, preferable, preferably, are Twig-Words, 
(or correspondent derivatives,) from one Branch- Word — prefer. 

Sense and sound pass from that Root, to the Stem, Branch, and Twig- 
Words, making their influence felt in the last adverb — preferably. 

570. It is seen, by inspection, that in English words we may form : 

Stem- Words from Roots, without affixes. 
Branch- Words from Stem- Words, with prefixes. 
Twig- Words from Branch- Words, with suffixes. 

A Stem- Word can receive both prefixes and suffixes. 

We can now define, beginning, for simplicity, with the Stem-Word : 

571. A Stem- Word is a secondary primitive, not derived 
from any other word in this, the English language, and which 
appears in some one syllable of all the derivatives. As a de- 
rivative, it is primary. 

In the examples, pliero ((pegcS) few, porto and bear, are Stem- Words. 
Looking at No. 1, you see that every word has for one of its syllables, 
plwr; in No. 2,fer; in No. 3, port ; in No. 4, bear, bur, or bier. These 
radical syllables indicate the Stem- Words. 

572. A Root is a primary primitive, a monosyllable from 
which Stem-Words are derived without affixes, and is usually 
found outside of the English language, in the families con- 
taining its primary sources. 

Thus, the Sanscrit Var, meaning to bear, is a Root, from which are 
derived the Stem-Words, Pher-o in Greek ; fer-o in Latin ; bear, in 
English.* 

573. A Branch- Word is a subordinate primitive, drawn 
from a Stem- Word by prefixes, but usually forming other de« 
rivatives, to which it is a primitive. 

*The verb-sign and termination, o, is a part of the Stem-Word in Greek and Latin, 
but not in English. 



primitives: derivatives. 229 

Thus, the Branch-Words prefer, confer, refer, defer, transfer, are formed 
from the Stem-Word /er-o, by the prefixes pre, con, re, de, trans, re. 
But, prefer is a Branch- Word for preference, preferable, preferably; 
confer is a Branch- Word for conference, conferrer, conferring. 

574. A Twig- Word is a derivative from a Branch- Word, 
or Stem- Word, drawn out by suffixes, forming one of the four 
material parts of speech — Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs. 

Thus, the Noun preference, the Adjective preferable, and the Adverb 
preferably, are made from the Branch- Word prefer, by the suffixes ence, 
lie, and ly. 

Twig- Words, under these four heads, made from one word, 
form together a group called correspondent derivatives. 

Of these, one is primitive, to a second, and that to a third, and thus 
through the formations. That from which another is formed, is called 
the primary to that other ; and that which is formed, the secondary to 
that primary among the correspondent derivatives. Thus, blackness, to 
blacken, blackener, blackly, black, are correspondent derivatives. Black, 
the adjective, is primary to all the others, because they are all formed 
from it. It is called the first primary. But blacken, the verb, is a pri- 
mary to the noun blackener, because the latter is formed from it, and the 
latter a secondary. In the correspondent derivatives of prefer, the verb 
is a primary to the adjective preferable, and the latter a primary to the 
adverb preferably — preferably is the last secondary. In the group there 
is a first primary and a last secondary. 

575. The terms primitive and derivative are used relatively. 
Words are primitive in different degrees, and derivative in 
different degrees. 

* Stem- Words are, therefore, derivatives from Roots ; Branch- Words 
from Stem- Words ; and Twig- Words from Branch-Words ; and of Twig- 
Words, the correspondent derivatives are drawn one from the other. 
In turn, Branch- Words are primitive to their derivatives; as differ, to 
differently, indifferently. Stem- Words are primitives to Branch- Words, 
and all their derivatives, as /er-o, to confer, differ. Roots are primitives 
to Stem- Words, with all their Branch- Words, and all their derivatives, as 
TAR to Fero, Bear, and the others. The Derived Adverb is a deriva- 
tive which is not a primitive to some other word, as wntransferably. At 
the other extreme, the Root is a primitive, without being a derivative 
from something else, as YAR, in Sanscrit. 

576. In tracing these derivations, the primitive is always 

10* 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

viewed as a monosyllable, and in that syllable the classes of 
its consonants are regarded. Its vowel, or vowels, are of 
secondary consideration. The syllable has already been named 
the Radical Syllable. 

Thus, from the Stem-Word capio, to take, are formed the Branch- 
Words conceive, receive, -perceive, occupy, recapture. From the Branch- 
Word conceive, are formed conception and conceivable ; from receive, re- 
ception and recipient; from perceive, perception and percipient; from 
occupy, occupation and unoccupied. Here the Stem-Word is represented 
in the syllables ceiv, cup, cap, cep, cip. They represent the Stem- 
Word, since the vowels are disregarded, and the consonants are, for the 
first, c, and for the last, p and v. But p and v, belong to the same class, 
being both Labials. Therefore, in the Stem, and in the Branch- Words, 
are the same constituents — a Guttural -+- a Labial. 

So from the Root var, in the examples, are formed the Stem- Words 
Phero, (tyego),) in Greek, fero and porto, in Latin, and bear, in English. 
The vowels are a, e, o, ea, and these are disregarded. The consonants 
before the vowel are v, ph, f u, b, and after it, r. But b, p, f, ph, (same 
as f,) and v in the Root, ale all Labials. Therefore, the constituents of 
the Root and the Stem- Words are the same, viz. : a Labial, followed by 
the Liquid R. 

577. All Derivation from any Primitive to any Derivative 
is made by the general law given : that hoth the sense and sound 
of the Primitive strike through into all the Derivatives. (5G2.) 

This is equally true of the Derivation of Stem-Y^ords from Roots ; 
of Branch- Words from Stem- Words ; of Correspondent Derivatives from 
Branch-Words. The process is but one. 

518. By the sense is meant, the meaning of the Primitive. The pri- 
mary meaning is some visible image, usually that of some physical 
motion which can be represented by the hands. The secondary meaning 
is usually the application of this motion to the mind, or to other objects. 

Thus, the primitive sense of bear, is to move on, holding something 
up. It can be represented by one hand bearing up the other as it 
moves. This idea of the Root passes into the Stem- Words phero, fero, 
porto, bear; they all mean to carry, to bear. From the Stem-Words, 
the sense passes into all the Branch- Words and Derivatives, with its 
secondary meaning. A metaphor, (see the examples,) is a word carried 
or home beyond its usual applications. The primary meaning is applied 
to words. Preference is a beariug of one thing before another. The 



derivation: general principles. 231 

primary meaning is applied to thought, and thus a secondary sense is 
produced. To support is to bear up under another thing. That is in- 
supportable which cannot be borne. The primary meaning is hero ap- 
plied to the feelings. Burden is a thing borne; to bo overbearing, is to 
bear down upon the feelings of another; to bury, is to bear the dead; a 
bier is the thing that bears the dead ; bearers are persons who bear the 
dead. 

In this way the primeval sense passes from the Root to the last De- 
rivative Adverb, through all intervening words. 

579. By sound is meant the preservation, in the Derivatives of letters 
of the same class, or same formation, with those which are found in the 
Primitive. If there are consonants in the Primitive, whether Labials, 
Dentals, Gutturals, Linguals, or Liquids, the class is almost uniformly 
preserved, while the vowels change. Occasionally, but rarel} r , the class 
is left for a like formation in another class, as a nasal labial m, for a 
nasal dental n. If there are only vowels in the Primitive, the class is 
preserved as Lip, Head, or Chest Vowels. Thus, the Latin eo, i-re, to 
go, is a Stem-Word of vowel sounds, the first being a Head Vowel, e. 
A Head Vowel is found in all the Derivatives in English, as exit, trans#, 
initial, pretenVe. 

5S0. Such is the law of language. It presents an image of vegeta- 
tion. The twigs of a tree depend upon the branches, and they upon 
the stems, and the stems upon the trunk, which draws its life from the 
root. In turn, from the root and trunk, life* circulates to every minute 
ramification. In the samo manner in language, sense and sound pass 
from the Roots to the Stem- Words, and from these through the Branches 
to all the Derivatives. 

581. Etymology traces both sense and sound through all the degrees 
of the Primitives into the Derivatives. It begins with the primary sens- 
ible image, and in that looks to the mode of motion indicated. From 
that, it passes to the derived meanings. The word Etymology expresses 
this fact. It is derived from etymon, (what is real, what is the true 
type,) and logy, (the science of.) Etymology finds the real image, or 
type, at the basis of the meanings of words, and deduces thence their 
full significations. 

582. It can now be seen why the vowels are not considered in tracing 
primary derivations, and the classes of consonants are regarded. 

It is because the general idea of the word is represented by the classes 
of the consonants, but the modifications of that idea by the vowels. 
e. g. : We have ring, rang, rung ; swim, swam, swum. The consonants 
represent the general actions — ringing, swimming; but the different 
vowels, a, i, u, modifications of time for the action. Sit and set; lie and 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lay; fall and fell, have the same consonants in each pair. But the 
vowels are changed to modify the meaning from intransitive to transi- 
tive. To sit is intransitive ; to set is transitive, meaning to make sit or 
stay. Lie is intransitive, but lay is transitive, and means to make lie. 
Fall is intransitive, but fell is transitive, and means to make fall. "We 
have cleave, cleft, cloven, and also the noun cleft, as " the cleft of the 
rock." In the consonants, f is changed to v, but the class is preserved, 
since both f and v are Labials. To express modifications of time, the 
past instead of the present, the vowel sound of ea is changed for o short, 
and for o long. The same change to e is made, to express the thing 
cloven. In bier and burden, borne and bear, the consonants represent the 
common idea, but ie, u, o, the modifications. 

These remarks will be found of great use for understanding what are 
usually called, in English, the Irregular Yerbs — the Verbs of the Old 
Conjugation. 

Sometimes the change of the Radical Yowel represents contrary ideas 
of the same class, as in gleam and gloom; East and West; wed, wid-ow. 

One and the same law of structure goes into all Derivations, whether 
we pass from the great families of languages to their descendants, or 
from one word to another in our own language. The rule is one ; its 
applications only vary. 

Compound Words Generally. 

583. A Compound Word is one made by combining two or 
more Stem-Words, or words of the same general class. 

Its parts usually belong to one of the four material parts of speech; 
as stand-point. =Yerb and Noun. 

Derivatives mostly combine the material with the formative parts of 
speech ; as, understand —Preposition and Yerb. 

The syllables of a Compound Word are regarded as radical. 

584. But of the syllables in a compound, one is usually 

Called THE DISTINCTIVE SYLLABLE. 

Thus, the first syllable is distinctive in rail-road, post-road, plank- 
road. It distinguishes one kind of road from another. 

585. Compound Words in English are native ox foreign. 
58G. Those which are native, are mostly drawn from the 

Gothic family of languages, through the Saxon. 

The Simple- Words are significant to one who knows the English lan- 
guage. These Compounds are generally such as are used in common 



COMPOUND WORDS GENERALLY. 233 

life, or pot try; as, ivrist-band, horse-man, cloud-capt, thunder-stricken, 
moss-covered. 

587. Those which are foreign are mostly drawn from the 
Greco-Latin family directly, or through the French. 

The Simple-Words are not necessarily significant to one who knows 
the English, their meaning being shown by the language from which 
they come. Foreign Compounds are principally used for forming terms 
in the arts and sciences ; as, poly-gon, hydro-statics, ther mo-meter, astro- 
nomy, theo-logy. 

588. In compounds we have the same fundamental law of language 
as in derivatives. 

Sense and sound pass from the primaries into the compounds. 

The Verbal Definition is made by combining together the 
meaning of the parts. 

e. g. : A horse-hoof is the hoof of a horse. Astronomy is star law, 
because one part of the compound means star, and the other law. 

Summary. 

589. Thus, one law belongs to all Derivative, and all Compound 
Words. 

In Structure, it is that sense and sound pass from the Elements into 
the Word. 

In Definition, it is that the meaning of the Elements, grammatically 
combined, give the Verbal Definition of the word. 

The whole process of Word-Building can now be summed up by the 
following principles: 1. For all Formation, (a) by Derivation, (6) by 
Composition; 2. For all Definitions, (a) for Sound, (6) for Sense. 

590. The Derivation of Stem- Words from monosyllabic Roots, is made 
by transferring the classes of the constituent letters, usually consonants, 
to the Stem-words. The definition of a Stem-word is made, for the 
sound, by stating the classes of the letters ; and for the sense, by stating 
the primitive idea of the root, and tracing the modifications (if any) in 
the stem- words, together with the changes of vowels indicating those 
modifications. For example : 

1. Derivation. — The Stem- Words pher-o, fer-o por-to, are from the 
Classic famity ; and bear from the Gothic, through the Saxon. They 
form, by derivation and composition, many English words. Their Root 
is the Sanscrit VAR, which means to bear, to carry by effort. 

The classes of consonants in the Root aro a Labial, plus the Liquid R. 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Definition, (a.) By Sound. — Tho classes of consonants in all the 
Stem-Words are the same a=s in the Root — a Labial, and the Liquid R. 
The Radical Yowel is changed from the Chest- Yowel ah, to the Ilead- 
Yowel e, in phero and fero ; to the Lip- Yowel 0, in porto, Latin ; to 
another Chest- Yowel in the English bear. 

(0.) By Sense. — The primitive idea of the Root passes, with little 
modification, from the Root into the Stem-Words. All mean to bear. 
In the derivatives, it is transferred from physical to mental applications. 

591. The Derivation of Branch- Words from a Stem- Word is made by 
placing before tho Stem- Word, particles, which are usually prepositions, 
and are called prefixes. The definition of a Branch- Word is made, for 
the sound, by stating tho classes of tho letters ; and for tho sense, by 
combining together the meaning of the Stem-Word, and the meaning of 
the prefix; as re-duce, to lead back; se-duce, to lead aside; ad-duce, to 
lead to. If the primary sense of the Stem-Word undergo modifications, 
these are to be stated. 

592. Tho Derivation of Twig- Words from a Branch-Word is made by 
placing after the Branch-Word, particles, called suffixes, which form the 
four leading parts of speech — Yerbs, Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs. 
Those of one formation are called Correspondent Derivatives. The de- 
finition is made, for tho sound, by stating any modifications produced in 
the letters by derivation. The definition is made, for the sense, by com- 
bining together the meaning of tho suffix with the meaning of the 
Branch- Word, or the meaning of one -of tho Correspondent Derivatives. 
e.g. : Productively, adv. ; Productive, adj. ; Producer, n. ; Production, n., 
are Correspondent Derivatives from the Branch- Word, Produce. Pro- 
ductively, means in a productive manner ; Productive, capable of pro- 
ducing ; Production is tho act of producing ; Producer is one who pro- 
duces, The definition of each is thus reduced, finally, to tho Branch- 
Word. Each class of suffixes, however numerous, has one general 
meaning. 

693. Compound Words are made by combining two or more Stem- 
Words. They are defined, for sound, by enumerating their simple words ; 
and for sense, by combining together the meaning of their constituents. 

Compounds, made in one of the two leading families that form the 
English language, should be reduced, if possible, to correspondent com- 
bination in the other, i.e. : Those from the Greco-Latin to the Gothic, 
and those from the Gothic to the Greco-Latin, e.g. : Astronomy, from 
the Greek, is star-law; Auriferous, Lai, is gold-bearing; Back -sliding, 
from the Gothic, through the Saxon, is relapse, from Latin; fish-eating, 
Gothic through Saxon, is Ichthyophagous, from the Greek, and man- 
eating is Anthropophagous. 



word-formation: specifically. 



235 



RECAPITULATION". 



1. Without 

Affixes; ^ Stem- Words from Roots. 



M 
P 

P 

w 

PS 
o 



'Derivation, . 



Composition.. . , 



{mostly) 



2. With r 

Prefixes ; J Branch- Words fr. Stems. 

f Twig- Words, or Corres* 
Suffixes • J pondent Derivatives, fr. 
Branch-Words or 
Stem-Words. 



1 



Law. for both, in ■» 



Native. 
Foreign. 

( Sense and Sound pass fr. 
r Structure, ... . •< the Elements into the 
( Word. 



t Definition, . 



Combine the meanings of 
the elements for that of 
the Word. 



594. By the Summary and Recapitulation, the pupil can now see, at 
one glance, the whole formation of the words of his language, as if he 
looked from a mountain on an extensive prospect. 

He now sees, that to have a perfect understanding of his language, he 
needs to know the meanings of the Roots, the Stem- Words, the Affixes, 
and the Compounds. Of these, the meanings of the affixes need specially 
to be placed in the memory, the others being given by the dictionary. 

Accordingly, we now pass to Word-Building specifically, in order to 
furnish the details needed for practice. 

But in these details he will find nothing but the application of the 
general principles just given. 



Sec. 2. — Word-Building, Specifically. 
(1.) Introductory. 

595. Word-Building, specifically considered, presents the details of 
formation necessary for practice. 

It is for the following attainment": 

596. The twelfth attainment in language is ability to form and define suc- 
cessive ranks of Derivative Words and Compounds from successive ranks 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of Primitives, by a common process in sense and sound, and thus to in- 
crease the knowledge and command of one's own, and other languages, 
through life. 

This attainment, well made, is a partial substitute for the study of the 
classic languages. 

The deficiency to be obviated is ignorance of the formation and force of 
the words used in daily speech, and in writing, but especially of those used 
in the arts and sciences. 

By successive ranks of Primitives and Derivatives, are meant those 
already named descending from Roots and Stem-Words to Secondary 
Derivatives and Compounds. In the form of these, as spoken or writ- 
ten, we are to trace the transmission of sounds in their letters. 

In their meaning, we are to show how their present and 
accepted signification grows from the primary signification in 
the Root or Stem. This usually presents some sensible object, 
as formed by motion for the eye, or sound for the ear. 

The following explanations and directions are for this attainment, and 
for removing this deficiency. 

Directions. — Let the learner give careful attention to the ensuing in- 
structions: Be diligent in the exercises. In the practice, take care 
to fix in the memory the prefixes, the parts of compounds used in 
the sciences and arts which you wish to acquire, and also the leading 
Stem- Words of the language. Let it be remembered that this is a pro- 
cess teaching how to use dictionaries in such a manner that the know- 
ledge of one's own, and of other languages, may be always growing. 

Method. 

It might be thought that in studying the formation of words from their sources, we 
should begin with the Root, and pass to the Stem and Branches, thus tracing the cir- 
cu'ation of sense and sound from the lowest fibre of the root to the last twig of a de- 
rived adverb. 

This would be the proper method for those who have studied many languages. 

But, for ordinary learners, the better method is to begin at the other extreme, and 
with the compounds, because in the compound the common process of formation is 
seen in a form so very simple that none can fail of understanding it. 

The following, therefore, will be the Method: 1. Compounds; 2 Cor- 
respondent Derivatives; 3. Branch- Words ; 4. Stem- Words; 5. Hoots. 

After the learner has become familiar with the subject, he can reverse 
this process, and pass from a Root to all its Stem- Words ; from any Stem 
to all its Branch- Words ; and from any one Branch- Word to all its Cor- 
respondent Derivatives. He can also unite Stem- Words to form Com- 
pounds. 



COM POUND- WOBDS: SPECIFICALLY. 237 



(2.) Compound Words. 

597. The formation of Compound WotcIs is principally by 
the union of two or more simple Stem- Words. We only 
consider those from the material parts of speech. 

The simple words form the parts of the compound ; as, astrolite = 
star-stone. 

598. The definition is made for the sound, by enumerating the parts ; 
and for the sense, by combining them grammatically, in a proper form, 
with or without attendant substitution. (593.) 

599. This is to be applied : 1. To Native Words, or those from the Gothic 
family; 2. To Foreign "Words, specially those from the Classic family; 
3. To the Substitution of Equivalent Compounds in one for the other. 

Exercises. 
Native Compounds. 

600. Rule. — Write the Compound Word on the left, separating its 
parts by a short line, called a hyphen. Place, on the right, a literal 
definition, by repeating the words of the compound. Add, by substitu- 
tion, when necessary, a more full definition on the extreme right. 

The common process of Word-Building is here seen in its simplest 
form. 

Examples. 

Break-fast ; breaking afast. The meal first in the day. 
Horse-cloth ; a cloth for a horse. A cloth to cover a horse. 
Horse-guards ; guards on horses. A body of cavalry for guards. 
Horse-man ; a man on a horse. A rider on horse-back. 
Horse-mill ; a mill for a horse. A mill turned by horses. 
Horse-pond ; a pond for horses. A pond for watering horses. 
Horse-tamer ; a tamer of horses. One who breaks horses for use. 
Horse- whip ; a whip for a horse. Whip for striking horses. 
Town-talk ; the talk of the town. Subject of common talk. 
Town-clerk ; the clerk of the town. An officer who keeps records* 
Home-sick ; sick for home. Sad at separation from home. 
Merry-hearted ; merry at heart. 
Thunder-storm ; a storm with thunder. 



233 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Apply this rule to the following words : 

Breast-plate, breast- work; thumb-screw, ship- wreck: seed-time, home- 
born, home-bred, home-made, home-spun,, home-built; law-giver, law- 
maker, law-breaker; stony-hearted, broken-hearted, weary-hearted; 
thunder-bolt; thunder-clap, thunder-cloud, thunder-struck, thunder- 
burst, thunder-blasted; iron-sided, iron-clad, iron-bound, iron-sheatbed, 
iron-handed, iron-hearted ; candle-stick-maker. 

Foreign Compounds. 

601. Rule, — "Write the Compound on the left, putting its parts one 
under the other ; then, opposite to each part on the right, the Foreign 
words in full ; then, each correspondent English word ; then, a corres- 
pondent English compound ; and then, if needed, a more full definition. 
Let each simple English word translating the Foreign, be, when possible, 
in a single syllable. 

The meaning and origin of the parts must be in a list given ; or in a 
dictionary, to bo at this stage of the course in the pupils' possession. 

This exercise has great value for explaining scientific and technical 
terms. 

Examples. 
noty Z n2 - IZ Har-law; ^noe of heavenly bodies. 
IZt Z JCT 2 IS } -sleep-Mnging ; causing sleep. 

mafhy = Ke Z Jgg } *-«■«** > «»** ab0Ut W ° rdS " 

tomj Z Nomos I Law ( = selMaw ! rale of absolute «™«nment 
Geo- == Ge == Earth ) ^earth-trace ; description of the earth's 
graphy = Grapho = Trace ) surface. 

Manu- = Manus = Hand ) , -, , 
factured = Facto - Made \ =band-made. 

Chrono-= Lottos == Lore ) ,. , . » .• 

logy. - Ohronos - Time \ =time-lore; science of time. 

fogy Z Logos Z Lore } = life - lore 5 science of animal life ' 

Con- = Conos = Cone ) 

oid = Eidos = Form >• =cone-form ; a cone-like figure formed by the 
or like J revolution of a conic section about its axis. 
Metal- = Metallon = Metal ) 

loid — Eidos = Form v —metal-like ; a substance resembling me- 
or like ) tals. 



compounds: equivalents. 



239 



Equivalent Native and Foreign Compounds, 



602. Rule. — Write, in columns on one line, the Compound-Words in 
English, Latin, or Greek combinations, which have the same significa- 
tions, underscoring when needful, any term which is thus to be ex- 
plained. 

This exercise is useful for teaching those combinations from Saxon 
sources which are equivalent to others from Classic sources ; and for 
making more clear the conception of the meaning of scientific and tech- 
nical terms. 

Examples. 



Foreign. 



Latin. 
Rectangular, 
Multilateral, 
Lucific, 
Multiform, 
Piscivorous, 
Multangular, 



Greek, 
Orthogonal, 
Polyhedral, 
Photogenic, 
Polymorphous, 
Ichthyophagous, 
Polygonal, 



Native. 

Saxon. 
Even-cornered. 
Many-sided. 
Light-making. 
Many-shaped. 
Fish-eating. 
Many-cornered. 



These examples, read horizontally, present one idea, and a like com- 
bination. 

In the first it is supposed that orthogonal is the word to be explained. 
It is to be underscored. 

Obs. — A new term from Latin or Greek sources has an air of mystery which hinders 
learning. This is removed when we substitute a plain Saxon combination, expressing 
the same thing. It is a step in a young person's mental progress when he learns that 
polyhedral means precisely the same with multilateral, and the latter \v*th many-sided. 
They are not three words for three ideas, two of them mysterious, but L roe expres- 
sions for one idea, and that of the simplest character. 

These exercises will promote one part of the twelfth attainment, and are the first 
exercises based on Etymology in the writing of compositions. 

GO 3. Lists, and materials for exercises, will be found in the Appendix. 
The following observations will be of assistance. 

Obs. — (I.) The parts of a Compound are generally two, of which the first is called 
the beginning, and the second the ending. Should there be more than two, there is 
more than one compound ; as star -stone, and green-star-stone. 

1. The learner should first get the prominent endings in his mind, which he will do, 
not by a special effort of memory, but by practice in forming compounds. 

Some of the principal ideas expressed by those endings are in Quantity : 1. Angle, 
2. Figure of Angle, 3. Side, 4. Form, 5. Fold, 6. Section, 7. Cell; in Qualities : 8. Color, 
9. Sound, 10. Likeness; in Time : 10. Years; in Substances: 11. Hand, 12. Finger, 
13. Foot, 14. Head, 15. Eye, 16. Teeth, 17. Leaf, lS^Flower, 19. Stone: in Actions; 



240 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



29. Bearing, 21. Making, 22. Yielding , 23. Breeding, 24. Knowing, 25. Willing, 26. Ruling 
27. Fighting, 28. Killing; in Habits and Disposition: 29. Knowledge, 39. Power, 31. -4rZ, 
32. Opinion. 

Examples. 



For example, we represent the idea numbered 



Latin, 

1, by -angle, -ular, 

2, by 

3, by -lateral, 

4, by -form, 

5, by -j>Ze, -plicate, 

6, by -/id, -section, 

7, by -locular, 

8, by 

9, by -Zone, 
10, by • 

32, by 



Greek, 



-pott, gonaZ, 
hedron-hedral, 

morphous, 



chromatic, 

phthong, phony, 
-oid 



English, 
corner-ed, 

side-ed, 

fold-ed, 

cells, celled, 
color-colored, 



Example. 
Triangle. 
Three-cornered. 
Hexagon. 
Multilateral 
Poly/iedraZ. 
Uni/orra. 
Duplicate. 
Tri /id. 
Bisection. 
MultiZocwZar. 
Many-ceZZed. 
Monoc/iromafic. 
Single-colored*. 
Monotone. 
Dilihtlwng. 
Paraboloid. 
Atheism. 



A fuller list, with explanations, will be found in the Appendix. 

2. He should then acquire the beginnings of these : 1. those of Quantity ; 2. of Quali- 
ty ; 3. of Passions and Affections. 

(I.) For the beginnings of Quantity, let him write the idea on the left, and on the 
right the expressions for it, in Latin, Greek, and English. Thus, for one, 1, we have 
Latin uni, soli ; Greek, mono; English, one, single: as Greek, monolith; and English, 
single stone. For none, 0, we have Latin non, in; Greek, a, an ; English, un, no, not, 
and the termination Zess: as Greek, amorphous ; English, unformed, or formless. 

These are so important, and so constantly needed, that they are placed here, and re- 
peated in the Appendix. 



Meaning, 


Latin, 


Greek, 


English, 


0. None, 


non-in, 


a, an, 


un, not, no, -less. 


y z . Half, 


semi-demi, 


Hemi, 


half. 


1. One, 


uni-soli, 


mono, 


one, single. 


2. Two, 


duo-bi, 


dis, di, 


two, double. 
twU twice. 


3, Three, 


tri, 


tri, 


three, thrice. 


4. Four, 


quad-ri, quat, 


tetra, 


four. 


5. Five, 


quinque, quin 


penta, 


Jive. 


6. Six, 


sex, 


hex, 


six. 


7 . Seven, 


sept, 


*iepta, 


seven. 


8. Eight, 


octo, 


octa, 


eight. 


9. Nine, 


non, 


ennea, 


nine. 


10. Ten, 


dec, 


deca, 


ten. 


100. Hundred, 


centu, 


heca, 


hundred. 


1,000. Thousand, 


mille, 


chili, 


thousand. 


Many, 


multi, 


poly, 


many, manu 


All, 


omni, 


pan, 


all. 


Full, 


pleni, 




full, -ful. 


Short, 




steno, 


short. 


Even, 


equi, 


homo, 


even. 



compound words: formation. 241 

If he now unite the beginnings with the endings, he can form compounds in Latin, 
Greek, and English, and from the columns of meanings can define them. Thus, tetra- 
hedral, quadrilateral and four-sided, are compounds. The meanings of the parts 
can be learned. Combining those meanings, we form a Verbal Definition of the Com- 
pound. 

(2.) The beginnings for Quality are few, but important. 



Meaning, 


Latin, 


Greek, 


English, 


Good, well, 


bene, 


eu, 


well, good, right. 


Bad, ill, 


male, 


dys, 


ill, wrong, mis. 


Like, 




homo, 


like. 


Different, 




hetero, 


other. 


Right, 




ortho, 


right, even. 



By combining these with the endings in the lists, we form such words as benevo- 
lent = good-willing, or well-wishing ; malevolent = ill-wishing ; euphony = well- 
sounding; dysphony = ill-sounding. 

(3.) The important beginnings for Passions and Affections are two, both from the 
Greek. 

Meaning, Greek, English, 

Loving, phil, loving, or love. 

Hating, mis, hating, or hate. 

Thus, misanthropy is a compound, which means the hating of men. The corres- 
pondent English Compound would be man-hating. 

Obs. (II.) — Some words, now appearing to be simple^ were formerly compounds. 

To know words well, this fact should be understood. 

The fact appears alike in words borrowed from foreign sources, and in those which 
are native. 

In the course of ages, portions of the Compound get worn away, as the inscriptions 
do on old coins. 

Examples from foreign sources : 

1. To judge. — This is derived from two Latin words ( jus, the law; dico, I speak.) 
To judge is to speak the law. A judge is one who declares the law. In courts of jus- 
tice and courts martial, this points out the duty of judges. They are not to make 
the law, but to speak the law. 

2. Prudence. — This is from two words, porro, far, and videns, seeing. Porro is both 
in Greek and Latin; videns is Latin. Prudence is, then, far-sight. Prudence is look- 
ing away from the present, far into future consequences. 

3. Noble. — Latin, nobilis, (non, not, vilis, vile.) It means, originally, not vile, not 
vulgar. 

4. Mercy. — Latin, misericordia, from misereo, which is from miser, miserable, 
that is, pained ; and cor, the heart. Mercy, then, is originally, heart-pain. A merci- 
ful man is pained in heart by the pain of another. 

6. Primrose.— (Prima, first, rosa, rose,) the first rose, or flower, in Spring. 

Examples from Native Words. 

6. Acorn. — Oak-corn, the corn of the oak ; the fruit of the oak. 

7. Daisy. — Day's Eye. 

8. Twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, etc.— Two tens, three tens, four tens, five tens, 
six tens, etc. 



242 ENGLISE GRAKKAB. 

9. Fortnight. — Fourteen nights. 

10. Hover. — To hang over. 

11. Rally.— To re-a!ly. 

12. Gallop. — To go by leaps. 

13. Neither. — Not either. 

14. Sheriff". — Shire, reeve: 

15. Rafter.— Roof-tree. 

16. Smile. — Small laugh. 

17. Landscape. — Land shape. 

18. Limp. — To pass lame. 

19. Shrug.— To shove the back, or ridge ; (Goth, ryka, the back.') 

20. Sketch. — To catch the shadow. 

21 . A March. — Marked chase ; measured movement. 

Several words ending in t, th, d, den, have, for the last part of the Compound, thing 
or state. 

1. Burden.— The borne thing. 

2. Cleft. — The cloven thing ; a space cloven. 

3. Sand. — A sundered thing ; sundered stone. 

4. Slate. — Slit stone. 

5. Flood. — Floating thing. 

6. A Fleet. — A floated thing ; a collection of vessels. 

7. Lead. — A loading thing ; a metal that loads. 

8. Sloth, youth, birth, growth, death, length, warmth, width. — State of being slow, 
young, born, growing, dead, long, warm, wide. 

9. Mead, meadow. — The mowed thing ; flat land for mowing. 
The name Milan, in Italy, waf Mediolanum, meaning mead-land. 

10. What— Which thing. 

These examples will illustrate the fact in language. A learner can find other exam- 
ples in dictionaries. 



CORRESPONDENT DERIVATIVE WORDS. 243 



Sec. 3. — Correspondent Derivatives. 

Derivatives, with Grammatical Suffixes. 

604. Twig -Words are Derivatives, made from Branch- 
Words, by suffixes ; as, producfo'cw, producfa/ve, producer, pro- 
ductive?;?/. 

605. Suffixes are particles at the end of Derivatives. 

606. Grammatical Suffixes are those which merely form one 
of the four material parts of speech — Verbs, Nouns, Adjec- 
tives, Adverbs. 

e.g. : Ness, in righteousness, is a grammatical suffix, since it merely 
makes a noun from the adjective righteous. Ion, in destruction, is a 
grammatical suffix. It merely gives the form of a noun from the verb 
destroy. 

607. Descriptive Suffixes are those which add some circum- 
stance to the grammatical formation. 

e.g. : Vorous is a descriptive suffix in the word carnivorous. It means 
eating, and the whole word flesh-eating. The descriptive part is in the 
syllable vor ; the grammatical, giving the adjective form, is in ous. The 
whole suffix, vorous, belongs to compounds. Its last part, ous, alone be- 
longs to the present head. 

608. Words with Descriptive Suffixes are considered Com- 
pounds. 

The present subject only embraces the grammatical suffixes. 

609. Correspondent Derivatives are a group of Twig- 
Words under some or all of the four material parts of speech, 
made from the same Branch or Stem- Word. 

It has been shown that these are formed one from the other : the form- 
ing called primary, and the formed secondary ; that, where the formation 
begins is the first primary, and that, where it ends is the last secondary; 
(574,) as produce, -producer, production, productive, productively. 

610. In a group of Correspondent Derivatives under some 
or all of the four material parts of speech, the verbal defini- 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion for each, except the first primary, is made by means of 
its correspondent primary, united to the meaning of the suffix. 

Thus, we define 

The Adverb by the correspondent Adjective. 
The Adjective " Ver3 or Noun. 

The Noun " Verb or Adjective. 

The Verb " Noun or Adjective. 

.611. The meaning of the Suffix is always so expressed as 
to suit the primary employed in the definition. 

The first primary comes under the rules for definitions, with prefixes 
for Branch- Words. 

For example: Blacken, producer, production, productive, productively, 
blackener, are thus defined. 

Blacke??, to make black. The verb defined by Adjective. 

Producer, one who produces. Noun defined by Verb. 

Produc&Ym, the act of producing. Noun defined by Verb. 

Produc£we, capable of producing. Adjective defined by Verb. 

Productive??/, in a productive manner. Adverb defined by Adjective. 

Blackener, one who blackens. Noun defined by Verb. 

The termination er, is here used to form one noun, called a Noun of 
the Person, from the verb produce; and ion, to form another noun, called 
a Noun of Thing, from the same verb ; ive, to form an adjective from the 
same verb ; and ly, to form an adverb from the adjective, productive ; the 
termination en, is used to form a verb from the adjective, Hack ; and er, 
to form a noun, blackener, from the verb, to blacken. 

The meaning of er, which forms a Noun of the Person, is therefore so 

expressed as to suit the Verb. It means one who . This is equally 

the meaning for all suffixes which form Nouns of the Person from a 
Verb. It can then be varied to suit the Adjective. The meaning of 'ion, 
and of all suffixes which form a Noun of the Thing, is made such as to 
suit the same correspondent Verb. The meaning is varied to suit the 
correspondent Adjective. The same rule is followed with en, ive, and ly. 
Thus, each of the four leading parts of speech are defined by aid of the 
correspondent derivatives, except the primary. That, in one example, is 
produce, which is from pro and duco, meaning to bring forth. In the 
other case it is black, which admits of no verbal definition, because it is 
a primitive word. Its definition must be categorical. 

Such is the rule for defining by grammatical suffixes, and such the 
principle which determines the meaning attached to them. We can now 



PJHUVAT'IttS: 6CFFIXE8. 345 

see what the Suffixes are in the English language to which these princi- 
ples apply. 

612. Their general sense is all we need for the memory.* 

1. Adverbs. — The principal suffix to form adverbs, is ly. Adverbs, 
thus formed, are defined by means of the correspondent adjective. The 
meaning given to ly is, in a manner. The correspondent adjective is 
supposed to fill the blank ; as, rapidly, in a rapid manner. 

2. Adjectives. — The suffixes which form Adjectives, are ac, al, an, ar, 
ary, en, ic, ical, id, He, ine, ory, ate, ful, ose, ous, some, y, ish, like, ly, ive, 
lie, (as able, ible, uble.) There are, also, 1, the terminations ing, for the 
Active form of the verb, and ed, for the Passive, when the Adjectives 
are named participles, for reasons given in Syntax ; 2, the Negative ter- 
mination, less. The terminations of degree, as ish, some, er, est, escent, 
are descriptive. 

Adjectives thus formed are defined by means of the correspondent noun 
or verb. To suit the noun, the general meaning of the suffix terminations 
is, of, belonging to, pertaining to, full of, made of, like to, having, or some 
equivalent signification ; as academic, of, or belonging to an academy; 
beautiful, full of beauty ; wooden, made of wood ; childM, like to a child ; 
affectionate, having affection ; abundcmtf, having abundance. 

To suit the verb, the meaning of the suffix is adapted either to the 
Active or Passive form of the verb. The two suffixes for the Action 
and Passion, are ing and ed. The two suffixes for capacity for the Ac- 
tion and Passion, are ive and ble. The meaning of ive is, capable of 

ing. The meaning of, ble, is capable of being ed. The one 

always takes the Active, and the other the Passive participle. 

As, dcstroy-ing, the active of to destroy ; de-stroyed, the passive of to 
destroy; de-strucUVe, capable of destroy^ ; destructive, capable of 
being destroyed. 

The termination less, is simply negative, having the same effect with 
the negative prefixes un, in, dis, non, an, etc., which have been already 
given. Its meaning is, not, without, toanting, or something equivalent ; 
as, artless, without art, or not artful ; mastZe.ss, without a mast, or dis- 
masted; shapeless, without shape, or tmskaped; formless, without form, 
zm-formed, a-morphous ; orderZess, without order, m-ordinate. 

3. Nouns. — Suffixes for Nouns form those of the Thing or Person. 
(a.) Nouns of the Thing are the names of the Actions and Qualities 

expressed by Verbs and Adjectives, having for their very common title, 
that of Abstract Nouns. 

♦The common method of making an alphabetic list, with a new definition for each, 
s needless. , 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The suffixes forming Nouns of the Thing, are acy, age, at, ance, ancy, 
ary, ence, ency, escence, ice, ics, ion, m, merit, mony, ory, tude, ty, ure, y, 
dom, hood, ness, ry, ship, th, t 

The diminutives cle and let; the mental terminations ics. and ism; the 
locals, ary, ory ; the collective, age, are all descriptive. 

Derivative Nouns of the Thing, formed by Suffixes, are defined by means 
of the correspondent Verb or Adjective. 

To suit the verb, the general meaning of the suffixes for Nouns of the 
Thing, is act of, or thing that, followed by the Active form of the verb, in 
ing, as concealment, the act of concealm^r. Refreshment, the thing that 
refreshes. Service, the act of serving. 

To suit the adjective, the general meaning of the suffixes for Nouns of 
the Thing, is state of being, or thing that is, followed by the adjective, or 
by the passive form of the verb, in ed, as breadth, the state of being 
broad: righteousness, the state of being righteous; height, the state of 
being high ; collect/cm, the state of being collected ; service, the thing 
served. 

Frequently, the same word admits both meanings ; as, destruction is 
the act of destroying, or the state of being destroyed ; removal, the act of 
removing, or the state of being removed. One takes the Active, and one 
the Passive form of the verb in the participle. 

(&.) Nouns of the Person are names for Agents or Recipients. 

The Suffixes forming Nouns of the Person, are ar, er, or, an, ant, ard, 
ary, ate, ee, eer, ent, er, ist, ite, ive, or, ster. 

The diminutives kin and ling are descriptive. 

Derivative Nouns of the Person, formed by Suffixes, are defined by means 
of the correspondent Verb or Adjective. 

To suit the verb, the general meaning of the Suffixes for Nouns of the 
Person, is one who, followed by the Active form of the verb ; and for the 
Adjective, one who is, followed by the Adjective or Passive form of the 
verb ; as, songster, one who sings ; beggar, one who begs ; lover, one who 
loves; governor, one who governs; barbarian, one who is barbarous; 
capUVe, one who is captured ; favorite, one who is favored. 

The suffix, ee, is for the Passive of the verb, as er is for the Active ; 

its meaning is, one who is d, ed ; as payer, one who pays ; payee, one 

ivho is paid ; trustee, one who is entrusted. Er expresses the Agent ; ee 
the Recipient. 

4. The suffixes which form Derivative Yerbs, are en, ize, fy, ate, ish. 
They can be remembered by making the mnemonic word, enizefyatish. 

Derivative Verbs, formed by Suffixes^ are defined by means of the corres* 
pondent Adjective or Noun. 



suffixes: descriptive. 247 

To suit the Adjective, the general meaning of these suffixes for verbs, 
is to make; as, harden, to make hard; immortalize, to make immortal; 
certify, to make certain ; public, to make public. 

To suit the Noun, the general meaning is, to make into, to become, to 
give; as, petri/y, to make into stone ; tyrannize, to become a tyrant; author- 
ize, to give authority. 

The Prefixes be, en, in, have the same sense : as becloud, to make 
cloudy; empower, to make powerful; mflame, to give flame. 
Such are the Suffixes. 

624. 0b3. — As we have seen (637) those arc strictly grammatical which are used to 
form a part of speech. Those are descriptive which add some circumstance. Thus, 
ary not only forms Nouns, but means a place ; as Library, a place for books. 

Descriptive Suffixes are the following : 

1. In Adverbs. — Ward, meaning in a direction. 

2. In Adjectives. — 1. The negative, less; 2. The Active and Passive 
ing and ed, with those of capacity, in ive and ble ; 3. The comparatives 
er, est, ish, some, escent. 

The terminations of degree are descriptive, and simply use in definition 

the adjective itself. Ish and some, mean somewhat ; er, means more; 

and est, most ; escent, becoming. 

e.g. : Greenish, somewhat green ; darksome, somewhat dark ; greener, 
more green ; greened, most green ; putrescew^, becoming putrid ; quies- 
cent, becoming quiet. 

3. In Nouns — 1. The Diminutives cle, ling, kin, let-, 2. the Locals ary and 
ory ; 3. the Mentals ics and ism : and 4. the Collective, age. 

Cle is a diminutive, and means little, as particle, a little part ; icicle, a 
little piece of ice. 

Ism means state of being, or belonging to ; as a parallelism, the state of 
being parallel ; hebraism, belonging to the Hebrews in language, an idiom ; 
orientalism, belonging to the Orientals in language, a mode of speech be- 
longing to Orientals ; fanaticism, belonging to a fanatic in opinions. 

Ics, means the science or art of; as, physics, the science of nature.* 

Ary, ory, ry, dom, and ship, mean the place of, or for : as, library, a 
place for books ; depository, a place for depositing ; nurse?"?/, a place for 
nursing ; kingdom, the place for the power of a king. Ship is applied 
to time, and to an office ; as, chancellors/wp, stewardship, office of chan- 
cellor and steward ; but it also comes under the general meaning of 
Nouns of the Thing ; as friendship, the state of being friendly. 

* Science or Art are also expressed by the suffixes ure and ry; as, agriculture; 
chemistry. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Age, means a collection of; as foliage, a collection of leaves ; plumage, 
a collection of feathers. 

Ling, kin, and let, mean little, or young ; as lor&ling, a little lord ; gos- 
ling, a ft^e goose ; manito, a fo'^e image of a man ; stream^, a little 
stream. 

Descriptive Suffixes generally use the word itself in the definition: as, 
stewards/wjp, office of steward; parallelism, state of being parallel. 

As to the origin of these Suffixes: 

1. In Adverbs. — Ly is Native, and from like. 

2. Iix.Adjectives. — The Native terminations are en, ful, some, y, ish, 
like, ly, ing, ed, less, ish, some. 

3. In Nouns of the Thing. — The Native Suffixes are dom, hood, ness % 
let, ry, ship, th, t. 

In Nouns of the Person. — The Native are er, ling, ster, ard, kin. 1st is 
from the Greek, being the personal termination for verbs in ize ; as dog- 
mata, dogmata, cateclnze, catechM 

4. In Derivative Yerbs, en is native ; fy is from the Latin, facio ; ize 
is from the Greek. . 

The few syntactical terminations in English for Verbs, Substantives, 
Adjectives and Adverbs, may be here summed together. 

Yeebs. Part : ( Pres. : and Act — ing. Adj.:(Comp: — er. 
< and < 

[ Past.: and Pass — ed. Adv.: ( Superl: — est. 



Engl 




Lat. 


Gr. 


Shem. 


Number, ( PI — es, -s, 




a, es, ae, 


a, ides, ata 


-im 


i — en. 










j Fern, -ess, 
Gender, ( 


ine. 


ix, 


a. 




Case, L r * 
' ( Obj. — m. 












Summary. 







614. In the following summary of the mode of defining, each blank 
is to be filled by the correspondent primary. 

Secondary, Primary, Definition, with blank for primary. 

1. Adverbs with Adjective ; in a manner. 

The blank is to be filled with the Adjective. 



DEFINING BY SUFFIXES. 249 



2. Adjective with Noun ; of, belonging, pertaining to . 

•' in ive, with Yerb, Active ; capable of ing. 

" in ble " Passive ; capable of being ed. 

3. Noun of Thing, with Verb, Act. ; Act of ing. 

u " Pass. ; Stale of being ed. 

" " Adj. ; State of being . 

11 u Noun of Person ; Act of a er. 

Noun of Person, with Yerb, Active ; one who s. 

" " Passive ; one who is ed. 

n H Adjective ; one who is . 

" " Noun of Thing : one who is given to — 

4. Yerb, with Adjective ; to make . 



Noun ; to make into, become, give- 



615. Rules for a written exercise in the derivation of Correspondent De- 
rivatives hy Suffixes. 

Write the word upon the left, and by its side the meaning 
of its primary, and of the suffix used. State, briefly, the 
primary and secondary. 

Examples. 

Attractively ; in an attractive manner. Adv. by A. 
Attractive ; capable of attracting. A by Y. 
Attraction ; the act of attracting. N by Y. 
Destructively ; in a destructive manner. Adv. by A. 
Destructive ; capable of destroying. A by Y Act. 
Destructible; capable of being destroyed. A by Y Pass. 
Destruction ; act of destroying. N by Y Act. 
Destruction ; state of being destroyed N by Y Pass. 
Destroyer ; one who destroys. N by Y Act. 
Brutalize ; to make brutal. Y by A. 
Glorify; to make glorious. Y by A. 

Apply the rule to the following Correspondent Derivatives. 
The first primary in each horizontal line is distinguished. 



Yerb. 


Noun. 


Adj. 


Adv. 


Compress, 


compression, 


compressive, 


compressively. 






compressible, 


compressibly. 


Depress, 


depression, 


depressive, 


depressively, 


Express, 


expression, 


expressive, 


expressively. 






expressible, 


expressibly. 



250 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Yerb. 


Noun. 


Adj. 


Adv. 


Impress, 


impression, 


impressive, 


impressively. 


Oppress, 


oppression, 


oppressive, 


oppressively. 


Eepress, 


repression, 


repressive, 


repressively. 






repressible, 


repressibly. 


Suppress, 


suppression, 


suppressive, 


suppressively. 


Immortalize, 


immortality, 


immortal, 


immortally. 


Glorify, 


glory, 


glorious, 


gloriously. 


Blacken, 


blackness, 


black. 


blackly. 


Publish, 


publicity, 


public, 


publicly. 


Capacitate, 


capacity, 


capacious, 


capaciously. 


Sweeten, 


sweetness, 


sweet, 


sweetly. 


Brutalize, 


brute, 
brutality. 


brutal, 


brutally. 



If the process be not at once understood, let the following order bo 
adopted, since it cannot fail to make it plain to every capacity. 

Write words of the same class and termination together, and repeat 
the common definition, thus : 

Verbs, 



Blacken, to maJce 
Eternize, to make 
Glorify, to make 
Capacitate, to make 
Publish, to make 



black. 

eternal. 

glorious. 

capacious. 

public. 



Adj. 



Nouns of the Person, 



Blackener, one who 
Glorifier, one who 
Lover, one who 
Conductor, one who 
Counsellor, one ivho 



blackens. Yerb. 
glorifies. " 
loves. " 

conducts, " 
counsels. " 



Adverbs. 



Productively, in a .« 
Deductively, in a - 
Inductively, in an - 
Keductively, in a - 
Seductively, in a - 



-lve mannef. 



DEFINING BY SUFFIXES. 251 

Adjectives Capacitating. 1. Active in ive. 

Productive, capable of -(Verb.)- ing. 

Deductive, " " 

Inductive, " " 

Eeductive, " " 

Seductive, " " 

2. Passive in ble. 

Producible, capable of being -(Verb.)- ed. 

Deducible, " " 

Seducible, " " 

Destructible, " . " 

Nouns of the Thing. 

deduction, the act of reducing. 
Deduction, " -(Verb.)- ing. 

Construction, " " 

Blackness, the state of being })lack. 
Righteousness, " righteous. 

Whiteness, u white. 

61 G. The simplicity of the process is thus evident. Simple as it is, it 
teaches the common process of language. It is identical with the deri- 
vation of Branch-words, by prefixes from Stem-words, and of Stem- 
words from Roots — subjects which now follow. 

We now proceed, therefore, to define the first primary, by considering 
Branch-words, and for them the Prefixes. 

The exercise will promote a second part of the twelfth attainment. 



Sec. 4. — B ran c h- Words. 

Derivatives with Prefixes. 

61*7. Particles prefixed to other words are called Prefixes. 

Attached to Stem- words, they form Branch- words. Therefore, 

G18. Branch-words are Derivatives from Stem-words made 
by means of Prefixes. 

Thus, from the Stem- word, stand, are formed the Branch- words under- 
stand, withstand, by means of the prefixes under and with. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

619. The verbal definitions of Branch-Words are made by 
simply combining together the meaning of the Stem- word and 
that of the Prefix. 

1. The meaning of the Stem-Word must be supposed to be given at 
this point of study. It should be obtained from the dictionary or the 
instructor, if not clearly known. 

The following remarks, however, will assist the intelligent learner 
materially m grasping satisfactorily the meaning of Stem-"Words. 

(a.) The principal Branch-words, especially from the Latin, are Yerbs, 
and the process of derivation can be more distinctly shown by Yerbs 
than by the other parts of speech. Let us suppose the Stem- Word to be 
a verb, from which other verbs are derived. 

The verb represents some Action ; as, to go from a place ; to come to 
a place ; to draw ; to push ; to pack ; to press ; to tack together ; to 
loosen ; to tear apart. 

(b.) This Action is regarded as a motion in space, such as could be 
exemplified by the hands ; or the cessation of motion, by rest. e.g. : 
Crowd the hands together, aad you form the image of press* 

(c.) The modifications of that motion are expressed by placing before 
the verb certain particles, which express modes of motion, or of position 
by motion. Such are up, down; off, by; over, under; in, out; before, 
behind. 

(d.) These particles are, or have been, mostly prepositions. As the 
English is made up from many sources, some of these are drawn from. 
the Gothic family, through the Saxon ; and, as native words, are known 
to all who speak this language. Others are drawn from, the Classic 
family — some from the Latin, and some from the Greek — and not uni- 
versally known. 

e.g. : The meaning of the preposition or prefix, under, is known to us 
all. It comes from the Gothic, through the Saxon. Precisely the same 
meaning is given from Latin by sub, and from Greek by hypo, when pre- 
fixed to words: 

So S, Under-standing, — standing under. 
L, Sub- stance, = " " 

G, Hypo- stasis, ==» " " 

There is here but one meaning, expressed by different particles. 
These particles are called Prefixes, because fixed before words. 

*This remark is important also as preparing for understanding Roots, as the sources 
of Stem-Words. The principle and the process will be there found the same. 



DERIVATION BY PREFIXES. 253 

(e.) The Stem- Word or Stem-Verb thus representing a motion; and 
its prefixes, modifications of that motion, Branch- Words are formed 
by attaching to the Stem- Word those Prefixes of which it is, by 
usage, susceptible. 

e.g.: The Stem- Word go, receives the prefix, under. There is formed 
the Branch- Word, under-go. In like manner are made over-Go ; fore- 
GO-ing ; out-GO-ing; %-gone ; /ore-GONE. 

The modifications of the primary motion are expressed by these little 
particles. These, taking the one motion given by the Stem- Word, turn 
it in various directions, by other motions: e.g., Press being the Stem- 
Word, that motion is made inward, by mpress ; outward, by express j 
downward, by depress ; backward, by repress. 

(/•) We shall afterwards see that precisely the same thing is done in forming 
Stem-Words from Roots. Only there, the original motion is given by consonants, 
and the modifications frequently by a change of the radical vowel. 

(g.) It should be observed that for some emphatic words the motion 
represented by the Prefix, and the primitive motion given by the Stem- 
Word may be, though rarely, wholly or nearly identical, e.g. : This is 
the case in the words circumgyration, circumambient, downfall, superadd. 
The Radical Syllable of the first is gyr. The meaning is, circular motion. 
The meaning of the Prefix, circurn, is the same. In the second word, 
ambient means going about, and circum, around. In the third word, 
down and fall express the same motion. 

The same idea is thus repeated for emphasis in a word, just as it often 
is in a sentence ; as, "I will never, never leave you." 

These remarks are for the meaning of the Stem- Word. 

2. For the meaning of the Prefixes, which must be fixed well in the 
memory, it will be observed that thero are two methods of learning 
them. 

(a.) One is by having an alphabetical list of them, with their mean- 
ings, and getting that by rote. 

(b.) Another mode is by reducing the motions represented by the Pre- 
fixes to a few definite heads in a table, expressing these by the hands, 
that they may be distinctly embodied, and then stating how that kind 
of motion is expressed by Saxon, Latin, and Greek Prefixes. 

This mode is the best for those who reason. 

The Prefixes will be given in both forms ; in a list, and in a table. 

(c.) By one or the other method, according to the capacity or zeal of 
the student, should the Prefixes be understood, for several reasons : 

1. The knowledge of them is essential for understanding one's own 

language in its derived words, and for defining those words well. 

11* 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. This knowledge throws light on the formation of Stem-Words 
from Eoots, since the process is the same, but here more expanded. 
Thus, also, the knowledge of one's own language is extended, and a cer- 
tain substitute obtained for Classical studies. 

3. This knowledge increases the understanding of the force and use 
of English prepositions — a most important attainment. 

4. It prepares for understanding the force and use of prepositions in 
all other languages, subsequently studied, or spoken, or written. 

These particles exercise so great sway over the meaning of words 
and sentences in the English, and in every language, that no one can 
ever regret pains taken to master them. 

620. I. — Alphabetical list op the Prefixes, with remarks. 

Latin. 

Ab, * from ; as absolve, to loose from. 

Ad, to ; as adhere, to stick to. 

Amb, about; as amoition, going about. 

Ante, before ; as antecedent, going before. 

Circum, around; as circumference, what is carried around. 

Cis, on this side; as cis- Alpine, on this side of the Alps. 

Con, together, with ; as ccmjoin, to join with, or together. 

Contra, counter, against; as contradict, to speak against 

counterplot, to plot against. 

De, down, from ; as Reject, to cast down. 

Dis, asunder; as dispel, to drive asunder. 

Ex, out, out of; as exclude, to shut out. 

Extra, beyond ; extraordinary, beyond ordinary. 

In, in, into ; as delude, to shut in. 

In, not ; as ^finite, not finite. 

Inter, between ; as interpose, to place between. 

Intro, within; as Produce, to lead toithin. 

Juxta, near to ; as y^xto-position, position near to. 

Ob, in the way, against; as ooject, to throw in the iuay 

against. 

Per, through ; as pervade, to go through. 

Post, after; as postscript, what is written after. 

Pre, before; as prefix, to fix before. 

Preter, beyond; as preternatural, beyond nature. 

Pro, fomvard, forth; as proceed, to go forth, forward. 

Re, retro, back, again; as recall, to call back, to call again. 

retrograde ; to go back. 



DERIVATION BY PREFIXES: LISTS. 255 

Se, apart, aside ; secede, to go aside, apart. 

Sine, without ; as sinecure, without care. 

inscribe, to write under. 
nbtertogo, a flying under. 
{superadd, to add above, 
superstructure, a structure above. 
Trans, over; transgress, to go over, or beyond. 

Ultra, beyond ; tramontane, beyond the mountains. 

In, (privation,) not ; as ^capable, not capable. 

(negation.) 
Re, (repetition,) again; retake, to take again. 

Greek. 

Amphi, (a/i(j)i,) about, both; as, amphibious, living about, or both on 
land and water. 

Ana, (ava,) up, again ; anatomy, cutting up. 

Anti, (avrt,) against ; anti-acid, against an acid. 

Apo, (ano,) from; as, apo-stacy, a standing or going from religion. 

Cata, (xara,) down; cataract, a rushing down. 

Dia, (dta,) through; as diaphanous, showing through, or trans- 

parent. 

En, (tv,) in, on; as ewthymeme, in the mind. 

Epi, (sttc,) upon ; as epi-demic, upon the people. 

Hyper, (vk£0i) above, over ; as hyperbole, what is thrown above the 
truth; /M/percritical, overcritical. 

Hypo, (vtto,) under ; as hypothesis, a placing under; a supposition. 

Meta, (juera,) beyond, change ; as metaphor, a word beyond its usual 
meaning. 

Para, (naga,) side by side; parallel, running side by side. 

Peri, (^egc,) around; periphery, the circumference, what is drawn 
around. 

Syn, (cvv,) with, together; syntax, arrangement together. 

An, a, (Privation, negation,) not; as apathy, without feeling. 

a. anarchy, without government. 

Ana, (Repetition, ava,) again; anabaptist, one who baptizes again. 

English: Saxon: Gothic. 

En, em, en, encage, to put in a cage. 

Pore, before ; as forewarn, to warn before. 

Out, beyond ; as outlive, to live beyond. 

Over, above, over; as overrule, to rule over. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Under, beneath ; as underline, to draw a line beneath, below. 

"With, against ; as withstand, to stand against 

Ever, (continuance, repetition;) as everchanging. 

Un, (privation,) not ; as unholy, not holy. 

Remarks. > 

1. It is seen, by inspection, that the same idea is expressed by differ- 
ent Prefixes ; as over, super, hyper, mean above, 

2. Several Prefixes assume different forms, according to the letters 
which they join. This is usually done for the sake of sound, so as to 
bring sounds of the same class together. 

This is seen in English in the prefix, en. When we put it before b or 
p, we turn it into a Labial, and make it em. Before letters not Labials 
we leave it as en. Thus, we say enable, encamp, endear, enfeeble, en- 
gulf, enhance, enjoin, enkindle, enlarge, ennoble, enrich, ensnare, entangle, 
envenom, enwheel. 

But we say with b or p, embalm, e?nbattle, embellish, embody, em- 
brace, embolden, empower, empurple. 

The reason is, that it is more agreeable to sound a Labial with a 
Labial. 

Accordingly, in Latin, the prefixes ad, ab, con, dis, ex, in, ob, sub, 
change their final consonant to agree with the first consonant in the 
Stem- Word, or drop it altogether. Thus, instead of annihilate, the 
word is annihilate; instead of ad-fix, it is a/fix; instead of advert, 
it is avert; instead of a<i-spire, it is aspire; it is cooperate, and not 
con-operate ; it is Asperse, and not cfe-sperse ; it is emit, and not ea>mit. 
It will be seen by these examples how the final consonant of the prefix 
changes, or is dropped. 

The same fact appears in Greek. Thus, (1,) the n, in en, and syn, is 
changed to suit the first consonant iu the Stem- Word : as emphasis, not 
enphasis; sympathy, not sympathy ; salable, not synlable. (2.) The con- 
sonant in the prefix passes from a concludent to the correspondent con- 
tinuant, before the semi-vowel H, which is called, in Greek, a hard 
breathing. Thus, aphelion, but not apo-helion ; ca^edral, but not cat- 
hedral ; ephemeris, and not epi-hemer\s ; ephemeral, and not epz-hemeral; 
method, and not raefa-hod. (3.) As in Latin, so in Greek, the final vowel 
is frequently dropped. It is dropped from anti, cata, dia and para. 
Thus, the word is antarctic, not an^-arctic ; cafe-chize, not cafa-echize ; 
diorama, not dia-orama ; parhelion, and not ^ara-helion. 

Thus, in English, Latin, and Greek, the same fact meets us; that of 
modification in the Prefix, to suit it to the Stem- Word. 



derivation: prefixes classified. 257 

3. Letters, called Euphonic Letters, are often introduced ; as the last 
e in contravene, reduce. They are called euphonic, because introduced 
to secure correct sound. 

4. Several prefixes may be united ; as un-dis-covered, mis-understand, 
super-in-cumbent 

Such are the Prefixes as arranged for the memory. 
621. They should now be arranged by classification, so as to give a 
thorough and permanent understanding of the subject. 
A tabular view, with full explanations, therefore follows. 

II. — Tabular Yiew of the Prefixes, with remarks. 

In the table, the three columns on the right contain the Prefixes, 
Latin, Greek, and English. 

The next column on the left contains the primary meaning of the Pre- 
fixes, to be used in defining. 

The remaining portion on the left is a tabulated view, in which the 
meanings are arranged under the form of heads. 

The arrangement is like that given for English prepositions. 



Particles or Prepositions, used as Prefixes, can be reduced 
to four heads. They refer : 

1. To a point as regards the speaker. 

2. To TWO points, one of them MOVINa. 

3. To TWO LINES OF MOTION. 

4. TO AN ENCLOSED SPACE. 

Thus referred, they express Motion or Rest. 

To these heads may be added miscellaneous views of the action, as 
receiving Repetition ; Negation; Degree, (higher or lower;) Quality, 
(as good or bad;) Reversal. 

The numbers attached indicate primary, secondary, or tertiary mean- 
ings in these little particles. Thus, the primary meaning of ana (ava) is 
up. But its secondary meaning is that of going back for repetition. It 
corresponds to re in Latin. The first meaning of meta (jaera) is beyond, 
but its secondary meaning is after, corresponding to the Latin, post 
The primary meaning of ex is out of, but its secondary meaning is forth, 
from. The primary meaning of de is down from ; its secondary, from, 
and its third meaning apart from. It will be seen how naturally the 
second and third meanings in these, as in all words, grow from the first. 

Prefixes refer to 



258 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 







U 
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p 
c 


35 
13 






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p 


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c5 


P. 


• r-T 


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Pi 


a 


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M 


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<S 


rP 


o 


o 


rP 


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S 



1 & f 



P4 



o 

«1 



O 
P 



P 



M « 



£ 


P 


oT 


CO 

O 


eT.S 


c3 
co ^ 


■-P 


S-H 


c3 


j-i 


Ph 


•>— > CO CO 

P 

CO 

<3 H 


3 P 

p~ 
o 

m 


C3 


H 


o 


M* 


p 

pr a 


P= 

- E-* O 
« « P, 




t-T 


« 


fel 


O 




<J <! H 


O 


O 




<1 
P=l 


W P £ 


a w 
EnPQ 


en 



€ 



E-i y A 

§ ^ 

P5<1 




P 



s& 



PQ 



o 

3 



w 



pq 





V 




S-i 




B 


o 






CD 


t3 


■"* 


e 


3 




CD 


e> 




PQ 


r^ 





^ o 
H 



1 1 



.a 

5:0 



+j CD 

^ rP 

CD +3 
U O 



^ 









■&> 



J^ 






£ 



3 



g 



M *1 



derivation: prefixes classified. 



259 



S fe 



of 






•a 

S3 
O 



I 8 

o 
o 



c3 



■a 
§ 



a" 1 
£ a 



£ 



of 



CO 

M 



o 

<1 



Eh 

p 

O 

w 

<1 



£ 



g 

<1 



g 

3 



o 



O 



S 

U 

o 

Ph 

w 




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$ 

e 

^ 




ns 


^ 


« 


O 


*2 





260 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






Latin. 


Greek. 


English. 




Repetition, 


re, 


ana, 




V. 


Negation,* 


in, non, 


ne, a, an, 


un, 


Miscella- 




dis, de, 






neous 


Higher degree, 


super, 


hyper, 


over, 


Views of 


Lower " 


sub, 


hypo, 


under, 


the 


Defect,* 


male, 


<*ys, 


mis, ill, 


Action. 


Goodness,* 


bene, 


eu, 


well- 




; Reversal, 


de, dis, 




un. 



Explanation of the Table. 

622. The explanation begins with the idea in the fourth column from 
the right. The idea should be embodied by the hands, to make the con- 
ception vivid. The mode of expressing the idea is shown in the Pre- 
fixes, both of the Gothic and Classic families. The name English is given 
here and in other places, to the Gothic, because the sense is known by 
those who speak English. The order of the explanation varies slightly 
from that of the table. 

For Example: 

1. Prefixes referred to a Point. 

1. Above. — The idea is that of a state of rest, without contact. To 
represent it, we hold the hand above without touching the head. 

This idea is expressed in Latin by super and supra; in Greek by 
hyper, and in English by over ; as super add, to add above ; hypercnvriCAL, 
above critical ; overQROWTB. growth above. 

All these often express action and motion. 

2. Up, upward. — The idea is that of motion to the point of rest, ex- 
pressed by above. To represent it, we may move the hand toward 
above the head. 

This is expressed in Greek by ana, (ava in its first meaning) ; in 
English, by up : as anaTOWY, a cutting up ; upstarting, a starting up. 

3. Upon. — The idea is that of a state of rest above, with contact. The 
two syllables of upon, (up and on,) express the idea completely. 

To represent it, lift the hand up, and lay it on the head. 

This is expressed in Greek by epi ; in English by a ; in Latin, some- 
times by in : as epiTiiET, a word put upon another word to express Qual- 
ity ; epiDmnc, a disease resting upon the people ; epiTAVU, an inscription 
upon the tomb ; aGROUND, upon the ground ; aBED, upon the bed ; aSHORE, 
upon the shore ; Ascribe, to write upon. 



* The same were considered under compounds. 



derivation: prefixes: practice. 261 

4. Under. — The idea is that of a state of rest y beneath. 

To represent it, hold one hand beneath the other, or point downward. 

This is represented in Latin by sub and subter ; in Greek by hypo, and 
in English by under : as sm&stance, a standing under ; hypoSTASis ; a 
standing under ; wftoferSTANDiNG, a standing under. The word substance, 
from the Latin, means a thing standing under another thing ; the word 
hypostasis, from the Greek an action standing under another action ; the 
word understanding, in English, an idea standing under another idea 
or a word, or an action. 

5. Down (or Downward). — The idea is that of motion to the point of 
rest, expressed by under. 

To represent it, move one hand downward, and under the other. 

This is expressed in Latin, by de ; in Greek, by cata ; in English, by 
down. 

Thus, to Ascend, is to go down. CataRACT, is the rushing down of 
water. In a CataLOQUE, words are placed up and down. Down-F all, is 
a falling down. 

6. Before. — The idea is that of a state of rest To represent it, hold 
the hand before the person. 

This idea is expressed in Latin, by ante, and by pre (prae) ; in English, 
by fore; in Greek, hy pro. 

Thus, ante-ROOM, a room before another; /oreKNOWiNG, a knowing 
before ; proGNOSis, a knowing before ; prognosticate, to declare that we 
know before. iVoTASis, the part of a sentence before another. 

*7. Forth (Forward). — The idea is that of motion to the point of rest, 
expressed by No. 6 ; that is, by the word Before. 

To represent it, move the hand forward from the person to the point 
which it occupied, before, under No. 6. 

This is expressed in Latin by pro ; in English, by on and forth ; as, 
provvGE, to bring forth; pro ceed, to go forth, or forward; on-going, going 
forth or forward-, forth- stepping, a stepping forth. 

In Greek and English, this idea is often expressed by the same parti- 
cles which express being or going out. The source is thus indicated 
from which the motion proceeds. 

e.g. : JEcstaqy, from the Greek (exGracuc), is a standing forth of the 
mind. According to the same principle, the word ongoing, in English, 
means a going forth. 

8. After, to which belongs the kindred meaning of Behind. 

The idea is that of motion or rest. After implies relative motion 
referred to what goes before. Behind implies rest. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To represent the idea, hold the hand behind the person, and then move 
one step forward. The hand, of course, follows after. 

This is expressed in Latin, by post) in English by after, or hind) in 
Greek, sometimes, by meta: as, .postscript, what is written after ; after- 
taste, a taste after ; raeTHOD ({ju-Taodoc), what is after a road, what is 
made after or according to a fixed way. 

In common speech, we use hind as a Prefix. Thus we say hind-wheel, 
the wheel which is after the other ; hind-most, the last after others. 

9. Back (or Backward). — The idea is that of motion to the point of 
rest, indicated by No. 8 in Behind. 

To represent it, move the hand from the side to the rear of the person. 

This idea is expressed in Latin, by re; in English, by bach) and some- 
times in Greek, by ana (ava), in a secondary meaning ; as, elapse, to 
slide back ; back-SLTDE, to slide back ; cmaCAMPTic, in sounds, are sounds 
bent, or thrown back, or again. 

The idea, of repetition is associated by us and the Latins with motion 
backward, but by the Greeks with motion upward. Hence we say recom- 
mence for commencing again ; that is, for going back to the commence- 
ment, (re meaning back.) But the Greeks use ana (ava) for the same 
idea, its first meaning being up. Thus from Latin, reduplication, and 
from Greek, anadiplosis, mean the same thing, viz., redoubling. But in 
the Latin, the repetition is associated with going back, and in Greek 
with going up. 

10. Far or Near. — The idea is that of rest, but sometimes includes 
motion. 

To represent it, place both hands before the person, stretching one arm 
to its full extent, for the idea of far, and placing the other hand at less 
distance for near. 

Far is expressed in English by the Prefix far ; as, /ar-SEEiNG, seeing far. 

Near is expressed in Latin byjuxta, and in English by by, as, juxta- 
position", position near; &?/Stander, one who stands near. 

11. Apart, Aside. — The idea is that of rest, by the side, but may 
include motion. 

To represent it, hold the hand off, upon one side. Separation, by an 
act, is thus implied, as well as Position in a state of rest. 

This is expressed in Latin by se ; in English by side and by : as, 

/SeCEDE, to go aside, and therefore, apart. 

/Seduce, to lead aside. By-PLAY, play by the side. 

Side-BOABJ),* a board, or piece of furniture, by the side of others. So 
side-blow, side-wind, sides-man. 

*Some of these native words are, strictly, compounds. 



PREFIXES CLASSIFIED BY MOTION. 263 

12. (a.) This Side, (&.) Beyond. — The idea, originally, is that of rest. 

To represent it, select some point on the level of your feet, before you. 
Point to the space between you and it, for representing this side ; and to 
the space on the other side of it, for the idea of beyond. 

This side, is expressed in Latin by cis ; in English, by nigh and near : 
as c&Alpine, on this side of the Alps. In English are the words neigh- 
BOR, and near sighted. 

Beyond is expressed in Latin by ultra, extra, (and sometimes by trans, 
in a secondary meaning;) in Greek, by me ta* in English, by off, when 
rest, or state, and not motion, is implied. 

CTftra-MONTANE, beyond the mountains. 

Fxtra-oRvmARY, beyond what is ordinary. 

Trans-AiPiXE, beyond the Alps. 

Jfeta-MORPHOSIS, a change of form beyond another. 

Jfeta-CARPUS, a part of the hand, beyond the wrist, and on this side of 
the fingers. 

JJfeta-PHOR, a word carried beyond its first meaning. Off-horse, the 
horse beyond. 

The idea of being after, is connected with that of being beyond, and 
so the Greek meta (fiera) sometimes means after. See No. 8. 

2. Two Points — One Moving. 

The first head of the table, with slight deviations, has thus been 
explained. 

In the second head we regard two points, one being in motion. 

We see by the table, that the moving point may go from the other, 
towards it, or right against it. 

From these three simple -ideas spring several other particles. 

1. Prom. — The idea is that of motion. 

To represent it, move the fore-finger of one hand apart from the other. 

This is expressed in Latin by ab (often by de) ; in Greek, by opo ; in 
English, by off; as, 

AbsohVE, to loose from-, Depart, to part from; -Apostrophe, turning 
from the subject, to address another; O/spring, those who spring from 
one. 

2. To, or Towards. — The idea is that of motion. 

To represent it, move one fore-finger towards the other kept at rest. 
This is expressed in Latin by ad; in Greek, (sometimes,) by pros ; as, 
Adjoin, to join to; JVosthetic, what is joined to something, as a let- 
ter to a word. 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Eight Against, or Up Against. — The idea is that of motion, ter- 
minating in rest and contact. 

To represent it move one finger towards the other till it touches against 
This is expressed in Latin by oh ; as, O&ject, to throw against 
The idea is kindred with the next. 

3. Two Lines of Motion. 

Under this third head the two lines of motion, as we see by the table, 
may meet, or run side by side, or run across. 

These three simple ideas give rise to another group of particles. 

1. Against. — The idea is that of contrary motions. 

To represent it, move the two fore-fingers towards each other. 

This idea is expressed in Latin by contra and counter ; in Greek, by 
anti ; in English, by gain and with (Sax. ivider) ; as, 

ContraviGT, to speak against; Counter act, to act against; AntiPATBY, 
a feeliog against another; GainSAY, to speak against; WithsTAXD, to 
stand against 

2. Side by Side With. — The idea is that of motion in one direction, 
in parallel lines. 

To represent it, move the two fore-fingers forward, keeping them at 
the same distance from each other. 

This is expressed in Greek by para ; as, 

ParaLLEL, what runs side by side with another ; ParaBOLA, a section, 
running side by side with the outward surface of a cone; ParaBLE, 
speech, running side by side with some idea, to explain it ; ParaSELENE, a 
mock moon, side by side with the true one. 

3. Across, or Athwart. The idea is that of motion, in two lines, 
one crossing the other. 

To represent it, move one fore-finger in lines crossing the other at a 
right angle. 

This is expressed in English by cross, and for ; (see Ger. Ver) ; as, 
Ooss-purposes, thivarting-vmiposes ; ForBiD, to thwart the bidding; 
For give, to thwart the giving of punishment; ForSAKE, to thwart the 
seeking; that is, not to seek, but to abandon ; PbrGET, to thwart the get- 
ting of the memory ; to lose what the memory once got 

4. A Space Enclosed as a Circle or Sphere. 

This fourth head may he represented by so hollowing the left hand as 
to suggest a hollow sphere, and by indicating the lines of motion, or the 
points of rest, with the fingers of the other hand. 



prefixes: classified by motions. 265 

We may then consider that space inside (1) in its central part, or (2) 
in its boundaries, or wo may regard it from the outside, (3,) as an enclo- 
sure. 

These ideas form another group of particles. Regarding the centre, 
we have around, about, with, apart. 

1. Around. The idea is that of motion definite around a centre. 

It can be represented by tracing the outline of a circle with the fore- 
finger of the right hand around the other. 

This is expressed in Latin by circum; in Greek, by peri; as, 
CVrcwraFERENCE, what is carried around; Pm'PHERY, what is carried 
around. 

2. About. The idea is that of motion indefinite around some central 
position. 

To represent it, move the hand round about the other. 
This is expressed in Latin, by am, and ambi; in Greek, byamphi; as, 
AmbiTiox, a going about, as a candidate for votes ; Amphi-TKEATRE, 
a theatre built about, in a circular or oval form. 

3. With, or Together. The idea is that of motion or rest; if, of mo- 
tion, it is that of converging to a centre ; if of rest, union. 

This idea may be represented by drawing the fore-finger and thumb 
of the right to converge in the hollow of the left hand for the motion, or 
to stay there for rest. 

This is expressed, in Latin, by con and cum ; in Greek by syn ; in 
English by fellow, or by changing con to co; as, 

GoncvR, to run together with another; Synopsis, a sight of one toge- 
ther with another thing ; SymPAiiiY, a feeling with another, (syn changed 
to sym) ; i'Hto-HELPERS, those who help together ; Co-p artners, partners 
together. 

4. Apart, or Asunder. The idea is that of motion, but may include 
that of rest: 

If of motion, it is divergence; if of rest, separation. 

It can be represented by a motion of the finger and thumb, the reverse 
of the last. 

This is expressed in Latin, as motion, by dis and de ; as rest, (implying 
separation,) by sine (without) ; as motion or rest by se. For example: 

Detracted, torn apart: Inflected, bent apart from; Dispel, to 
drive asunder; SinecvRB, apart from care, without care. 

These are associated with a central place. 

Regarding, now, the boundaries, with the space between, we have 
Through, and Over. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Through. The idea is that of motion in the space between the 
boundaries. 

It can be represented by drawing the fore-finger of the right hand 
through the hollow space in the left. 

This is expressed in Latin by per ; in Greek by dia ; in English by 
through, or thorough ; as, 

PerTADE, to move through ; PerENNiAL, through the year ; D^goxal, 
through the angle; Through-TRAm, a train going through the route; 
Thorough-GOWG, going through. 

6. Oyer. The idea is that of motion, terminating: in rest at the bound- 
ary. 

It can be represented by the same motion used for the last, only carry- 
ing the moving finger to the limit, and arresting it there. 

This is expressed in Latin by trans ; as Trans- Atlantic, over the 
Atlantic. 

Such are the results from the space inside. Regarding the space out- 
side, as related to the enclosure within, we have Within, Into ; Without, 
out OF. 

*I. Within. The primary idea is that of rest within an enclosure, but 
may comprise motion into the enclosure. 

It can be represented by holding the finger of the right hand within 
the enclosure of the left. 

This is expressed in Latin by in, intra, intro ; in English by in, en ; as, 

ittCARNATE, within flesh; J/zbred, bred within; IntrawjUAL, within 
walls ; .Entombed, within a tomb'; ihtfro-SPECTiON, looking within. 

8. Into, or Among. The idea is that of motion to the point of rest in- 
dicated by " within.'' It can be represented by moving the finger of the 
right hand towards or into the hollow of the left. 

This is expressed, in Latin, by in; in Greek by en, (etc)', in English, 
by en, in ; as, 

ittFUSE, to pour into ; Ennmsic, into or among the people ; jE^kindle, 
to put kindling, or fire, into ; InFix, to fix into ; Embody, to put into a 
body. 

This differs from the last, in the idea of motion. 

9. Without, or Beyond. — The idea is that of rest, external to an 
enclosure. 

It can be represented by holding the right hand outside of the left. 
This is expressed in Latin by extra, and in English, by out, with the 
sense of rest or position; as, 



VERBAL DEFINITIONS BY PREFIXES. 267 

i&tfra-TERRiTORlAL, beyond or without a territory; O^lying, lying 
without 

10. Out of. — The idea is that of motion from within some enclosure 
to the space indicated by "without." 

It can be represented by moving the ringer of the right hand outward 
from the interior of the hollowed left. 

This is expressed in Latin by ex, often changed to e; in Greek, by ex; 
in English, by out, with the sense of motion ; as, 

.Exhale, to breathe out; i?MiT, to send out; ifoEGESis, drawing out 
an explanation, exposition ; EfFWjx, flowing out ; Onflow, flowing out. 

Such are the Prefixes expressive of motion or rest in Space. 

These are also applied to Time. 

Thus, J.wfeMERiDiAN, means the time before noon, a time before 
another time. Ante-ROOM, means the room before another ; a place before 
another place. 

"With these Prefixes the Action is fixed in Space or Time. 

Without being thus localized, the Action may be regarded as the 
Subject of Repetition, Negation, Degree, Quality, Reversal. 

The Prefixes for these ideas are given in v the table. Exemplifying 
words for each can be, and should be obtained from the dictionary. 

The most distinct ideas can thus be formed of the primary sense of the 
Prefixes used in the English language. 

In their first use, the words so formed apply to sensible objects ; after- 
ward, to mental objects. 

Thus, to concur, means in its first sense, to run with another ; in its 
mental sense, to agree in promoting. 

Knowing these particles thoroughly we can understand the primitive 
sense of the thousands of words into which they enter; the mode of 
formation of all English words, since the process is similar ; and the 
Prepositions and Prefixes in other languages, since they are reducible 
to the same heads. 

623. Practice should now follow in making Verbal Definitions. 

The meaning of the Stem-Word can be obtained from the dictionary, 
or from lists. 

624. To define by Prefixes, observe this simple rule. 

Rule. 

Define the meaning of Derived Words, or Verbs, by combining 
in a grammatical expression the meaning of the prefix with that 
of the Stem- Word. 

The exercise will promote a third part of the twelfth attainment. 



*?68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To give the definition a proper form in a written exercise, write at the 
head the Primitive Verb and its meaning; underscore that syllable 
which goes into all Derivatives ; place vertically, on the left side, the 
Prefixes to be attached to it ; opposite to each prefix, write the Deriva- 
tive formed by it ; the meaning of its parts ; then the whole literal 
meaning, and then any additional explanations required for presenting 
the actual and present signification. Make, orally, a sentence with the 
word, showing the meaning and use. Exemplify, when required, the 
motion with the hands. 

Example. 

Duco, Ductoim, to lead, to "bring. 
Ad, (to) adduce, to lead or bring to ; to bring one thing to the 

support of another. 
Con, (with) conduce, to lead together with ; to aid. 
De, (down from) deduce, to lead dovm from ; to bring one proposition 

down from another and higher one. 
E, (ex) (out of) educe, to lead out from; to bring one thing from an- 
other, as to educe good from evil. 
Educate, to bring out from; to bring out the powers of 
the mind. 
In, (into, in) induce, to lead or bring in ; to bring in motives for the 
will ; to persuade. In its old sense, to bring 
in examples; to prove a principle. The 
philosophy which recommends this plan is 
called the inductive philosophy. 
Sentences. — "To support his argument he adduced testimony." 
"Pure air conduces to recovery from sickness." 
"From one principle, he deduced several conclusions." 
"From seeming evil, still educing good." 
M To educate, is to bring power out ; to instruct, is to put 

knowledge in." 
"He was induced to commit the crime by a bribe." 
Obs. — If possible, draw these sentences from poets, or elegant writers, 
as the taste is thereby cultivated, and the memory exercised. 

The exemplifying by the hands of the motion expressed by the word 
defined, embodies for the eye the primary motion of the word, which 
underlies all its derived significations. 

To exemplify the Yerbs derived from duco, hold in one hand an object, 
as a book, which you can appear to lead or bring. With the other hand, 
make the motions required by tb- Prefixes; as, for adduce, moving to 



prefixes: practice in derivation. 



>b9 



the book ; for conduce, with it ; for deduce, down from it ; for educe, out 
o/it; for wduce, into it; for produce, forth from it; for reduce, lack from 
it ; for seduce, aside from, or with it. 

This process should now be applied to words : 1, from the Latin; 2, 
from the Greek ; 3, from the Saxon. 

1. Practice from the Latin. 

Prom the Latin, the following words should be made the subject of 
exercises. 

Two forms appear, the second being called the Supine, and the first, 
the Verb. 

The reason for giving both is that derivations are sometimes formed 
from one, and sometimes from the other. Thus, to conduce is from the 
first, and to conduct from the Supine. The letter, t, in conduct, comes 
from the latter. If the Supine do not differ in its radical syllable, it 
need not be written. 



Verb. 


Supine, 




Pono, 


Positum, 


to put or place. 


Duco, 


Ductum, 


to lead or bring. 


Fero, 


Latum, 


to bear or carry. 


Capio, 


Captum, 


to take or hold within. 


Plico, 




to fold or twist. 


Specio, 




to see or look. 


Mitto, 


Missum, 


to send. 


Teneo, 


Tentum, 


to hold. 


Tendo, 


Tensum, tentum, 


to stretch or strive. 


Prehendo, 


Preheusum, 


to grasp or take hold of. 


Pacio, 


Pactum, 


to make, to put together. 


Video, 


Visum, 


To see. 


Pluo, 


Fluctum, 


To flow. 



Unite these Stem- Words to the Latin Prefixes, ab, ad, ante, etc.* the 
list of which has been given. Thus, from the Derivative Words, define 
each and exemplify its use in a sentence. 



2. Practice from the Greek. 

From the Greek two forms of the Verb or Stem- Word are gene- 
rally needed. Sometimes they are two forms of an old radical ; some- 

* The Latin Prefixes can be remembered, as in number thirty-three, whose com- 
mencing letters are twelve, a, c, d, e, i,j, o,p, r, s, t, u, which may form a mnemo- 
nic word, ac-dei-jop-rUst 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

times one is the active, and one is the passive. The change in the. radi- 
cal is usually in the vowel, as in changing lego to logos. The passive 
sense is by adding ma. 

Take for exercises the following Stem- Words. 

1. Boleo. Ballo, {jSoleu, (HalTiiS) to throw 

Blem&, what is thrown. 

2. GVapho, (ypa^w,) to write, trace, draw. 

Grammy (ygaju/ia,) what is written; a letter. 

3. Lego, (2,eyo),) to speak. 

Logos, (Xoyoc,) speech; meaning of speech: reason. 
Lexis, (Ae£ic,) a word. 

4. Onoma, (ovojua,) & name. 

In uniting these Stem-Words with the Prefixes and Prepositions, 
some interesting and instructive combinations result. Terms are thus 
formed which are used constantly, or in scientific studies. 

Form, explain, and exemplify, from the first Stem- Words, Emblem, 
Hyperbola, Hyperbole, Parabola, Parable, Symbol, Problem, and 
in Compounds, Paraboloid, Ballistics. 

From the second, Anagram, Apograph, Diagram, Epigram, Para- 
graph, and in compounds, Geography. 

From tho third, Dialect, Dialectics, Lexicon, Analogy, Apology, 
Catalogue, Epilogue, Dialogue, Prologue, Syllogism, and in Com- 
pounds, GrEOLOGY. 

From the fourth, Metonymy, Paronymous, Synonym, and in Com- 
pounds, Patronymic, Anonymous. 

As the Greek Derivatives are important words, the process will be 
exemplified. Thus, 

1. Ballo, Boleo. The idea is, to throw, and thus, first to describe a 
line in^taikair, and then to strike the points aimed at. Blema is some- 
thing winch* is thus thrown. It has the passive sense. 

These are united with the prefixes en, hyper, para, pro, syn. 

Emblem ; a thing thrown into another ; a representation of one thing 
by another. "A balance is the emblem of justice." 

Problem; a thing thrown forward for solution. 

Hyperbola ; throwing above ; a conic section, whose angle with the 
base is above that of the side of the cone. 

Hyperbole; throwing above; an expression above the truth; ex- 
aggeration. 

Parable ; throwing side by side of; an illustration in narrative by the 
side of an idea, to explain it. 



prefixes: practice in derivation. 271 

Paraboloid ; resembling a parabola: (Oid, in compound terminations, 
meaning like to.) 

Symbol; throwing with another; something put by another thing, to 
stand for and show it. 
" The symbols in algebra are arbitrary." 

2. Grapho: to write; trace in lines ; sketch; describe. 

GramMA; the thing which is written, traced, sketched, drawn; a 
letter. 
This is united with but few of the Prefixes. It is united to ana, up : 
to apo, from; to dia, through; to epi, upon; and to para, side by side of. 
Anagram ; what is written by breaking up the letters of a word. 
Apograph ; a writing off from something, a copy. 
Diagram; what is written through; sl figure for going through a 

subject by oral explanations. 
Epigram; what is written upon some one thing; a writing which is 

concise, and upon some one subject. 
Paragraph ; a writing by the side of something else ; a separated or 

distinct part of a discourse. 
The compounds from this word are numerous and important; as 

Chirograph y, (xetq hand,) hand- writing. 

Crystallography, description of crystals. 

Ethnography. description of nations. 

In like manner are formed, Biography, Cosmography, Metallogra 
phy, Topography, Zoography, and many others. They should be 
explained and defined. 

3. From Lego, Logos, and Lexis, {ley a, "Xoyoc, he&c,) many important 
words are formed. Those from logos, enter extensively into the English 
language. 

(a.) DiAlect ; what is spoken through part of a country ; 

DiAlectics ; ways of speaking through common hfeJ|Mb art of 
reasoning on common and probable questions, Supposed to 
demonstration on scientific questions. 

LEXicon ; a book of words ; a dictionary. 

ANAlogy (ava, loyo^), speech upward] a constant reference of one 
subject, under the attention, to other subjects, conceived as 
standing around and above. 

Apology, (apo, logos) Speaking off from ; words spoken, for get- 
ting off from blame. 

Epilogue; speech upon; conclusion of a discourse. 

DiAlogue ; speech through] speaking between two persons. 



-i'tdHp art 
Supposed 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PROlogue ; speech before; introduction to a play. 

SYLLOgism ; speech put together ; two propositions so put together 

that a third must follow. The three put together make the 

whole syllogism. 

Logos also forms many compound words. The following words may 
be examples, and should be used for exercises. In tracing these 
compounds of logos it should be observed that it means originally 
speech. But what speaks, is reason. Speech is the ray of reason. So 
the second meaning of logos, is reason, sense. Thus, logos, is used for 
sciences, because they are works of reason. In English, we call sciences 
lore, because we learn them. The correspondent English combinations, 
which might be made, can be seen.* 

Chronology (xq ov °C> time); science of time; time-lore. 

Geology (yn, earth)] science of the earth; earth-lore. 

Biology (fiioc, life) ; science of life; life-lore. 

Etymology (ervjuov, the true) ; science of what is the true image in 
words ; of what is their first true sense, as given by some sensi- 
ble image ; first-sense-lore. 

Theology (deoq, God)-, science about God; God-lore. 

Technology (rexvn, art) ; science of arts ; art-lore. 

Phytology (tyvrov, a plant) ; science of plants ; plant-lore. 

Physiology (<j>vdcg, nature) ; science of nature ; nature-lore. 

Psychology (rpvxw, the soul) ; science of the mind; soul-lore. 

Ornithology {ogvig, -Oog, a bird); science of birds. 

Ichthyology (lx^ v C, a fish) ; science of fishes. 

Hydrology (vocog, water) ; science of fluids. 

Conchology (xovxVi a shell) ; science of shells. 

Sometimes in defining these sciences, the termination is regarded as 
meaning discourse ; as, Chronology, a discourse about time. 

The idea of reason, in logos, enters into other words, e.g. : 1. Homo- 
logous is a compound of two words, homos {ojuog,) like, or same, and 
logos, reason. It means, having the same reason, or ratio. Sides of 
similar figures, opposite to equal and corresponding angles, are homolo- 
gous sides. They are proportional. They come under the same reason, 
or ratio. 2. Logarithm is a compound of two words, logos, (loyoc,) rea- 
son, and arithmos, (agiO/uo?,) number. Logarithms are based on the 
reasons or ratios of numbers. They are the exponents of a series of 
powers and roots. 

* When tho language was growing up, the plain English combinations were not 
made a part of it. 



prefixes: peactice in derivation. 273 

In some words, the single idea of speecli is preserved. Thus, Philo- 
logy is, literally, a love of language ; the science of language. 

In some, the two meanings, of speech and reason, are united. Thus, 
Logic means a science, using the sense of words, for reasoning. 

4. From onoma, ovojua, a name, are combinations, with meta, para and 
syn, and the negative particle a (av, a). There are compounds, with 
homos (fi/iog)j like or same, and with patro (jzarng), father. 

(1.) Metonymy ; a name beyond; a change in name. 

(2.) Paronym; a name side by side of another. Paronymous words 
are words derived from another; as, just, justly, justice, justify, 
justifier. 

(3.) Synonym; a name together with another. Synonyms are words 
whose meanings are alike; as, strong, powerful, mighty. They 
unite, or come together in their meaning. 
(4.) Anonymous (a), not, (ovofia), a name ; without a name. 
(5.) Homonym, homonymous (ojlloc) same (ovofia,) name; with several 
meanings under the same name. Homonymous words, are am- 
biguous words. In synonyms we see many words, with one 
meaning ; in homonyms, one word with many meanings ; in paro- 
nyms, several words, but one stem. 
(6.) Patronymic ; father-name ; family name. 

In making the Greek combinations with the Prefixes, these explana- 
tions should be attentively observed, both for their assistance in mathe- 
matical and scientific studies, and also for their aid in subsequent defi- 
nitions of words. 

3. Practice from the Saxon. 

In native Stem- Words, also, as in Latin and Greek, two forms appear; 
as, go, went ; catch, caught; stow, sloth; bear, birth. 

Combine with their proper Prefixes, and define bear, do, go, lay, line, 
put, set, stand, take, work, ivrite, act, bid, blow, grow, hang, pass, reach, run, 
shoot, cast, breathe, let, gird, see, flow. 

The prefixes are tender, over, out, mis, in, fore, en, (em) for in or into, 
With, for. These need not all be written. 

When these will admit correspondent Latin or Greek combinations, 
Write such to the right, as : 

Foresee; to pro- vide, pro-\-video. 

Overflowing ; flowing over ; cor. Lat. superfluous. 

Underbear ; to bear up under, cor. Lat. suffer, from sub, fero. 

Underlay; to lay under, cor. Lat. suppose, sub pono. 

Understanding ; cor. Gr. hypostasis, hypothetical. 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mark coincidences of meaning in some Prefixes with some Suffixes. 

Thus the suffix less, has the same effect on the meaning, with the 
negative Prefixes un, in, and the others; as, pitiless = un pitying; bound- 
less »zmbounded; number/ess — - Enumerable. The Suffixes for Verbs, 
have the same effect with the Prefixes, expressing cause, such as be, en, in. 

Ods.— -In native words some Prefixes are separable and some insepar- 
able. Those which are separable can be used separately from the Verb, 
as Prepositions or Adverbs ; as, to rise up. Those which are insepara- 
ble cannot be so used. Such is mis in mislay. (1U6, 4.) 

Hence, Prepositions having the meaning of Prefixes, are frequently 
separated from the Verb, and have the grammatical effect in the sentence 
of an Adverb, while as to the meaning of the Verb itself, they are its 
Prefixes. 

e. g. " This business must be looked after." " It must be thought of." 
"It must be talked over." "It must be cared for." "Wherein is he 
to be accounted off" The flowers are beaten down. 

For the sense of these Verbs suppose the affix set before them in 
this manner: after-looking, over-talking, for-caring, down-beating. 

In conceiving, therefore, of the derivatives from a Saxon Stem- Word, 
made by Prefixes, these which are separable, are to be remembered, and 
a list of the Prepositions is to be in the mind. 

Such sentences as those just given are frequent in common life. 
They agree with the analogy of the language. The separation of the 
Prefix is a common fact in the German, and in the whole Gothic family, 
from which the Saxon comes, as it is in all the Indo-European languages. 
They are not, therefore, to be regarded as incorrect or ungrammatical. They 
appear less in written than spoken language, because of some over- 
critical remarks of some writers on Rhetoric. 



4. Practice for combining Derivatives with Suffixes, and those 
with Prefixes. 

Exercise for combining together derivations with Suffixes, and those 
with prefixes. 

The exercise will combine and complete the first, second and third 
parts of the twelfth attainment. 

Prepare seven vertical columns of sufficient width. Draw a horizon- 
tal line over them. Place over it, the primitive word, and its supine, 
from which derivatives are to be formed. Underscore the radical sylla- 
ble, with the mathematical sign for a root, and write its meaning by its 



CORRESPONDENT DERIVATIVES. 275 

6i&d. In the first column place the Prefixes which will be required; 
in the second, the Verb ; in the third, the Noun of the Thing ; in the fourth 
the Noun of the Person ; in the fifth, the Adjective ; in the sixth the Ac- 
verb, and in the seventh, the second Noun of the Thing, which is formed 
from the Adjective, marking the columns at the top with the letters P. V, 
N T, N P, A, Adv., 2d N T, as abbreviations for what the columns contain. 
Place the Correspondent Derivatives from any one Prefix, on the same 
horizontal line with it. If a possible derivative be not in use, draw a 
line in the space for it, or in cases of doubt, write it with the mark of 
interrogation. Be prepared to state, in all cases, what it would be if the 
language had formed it. In the first horizontal line place the deriva- 
tives drawn from the Primitive without a Prefix. 



Example. 



p. 



N. T. 



Trah -O' tract -um •■ 

r V 

N. P. 



« to draw. 



A. 



Adv. 



2d N. T. 



Tract, tractor, tractable, tractably, tractableness. 

Ab, abstract, abstraction, abstractor abstract, abstractly, abstractness. 

Ad, attract, attraction, attractor, attractive, attractively, attractiveness. 

Con, contract, contraction, contractor, contracted, contractedly, contractedness. 

It is supposed that the whole list of Latin Prefixes is inserted, with 
the words they form. 

Having drawn out the table so as to include the Derivative words 
from any one primitive, proceed to define orally. To do so, look at the 
Correspondent Derivatives standing on the same horizontal fine, and 
define each, except the Primary, by means of the others, according to 
the principles already given. Be prepared to give, if desired, a reason 
for each definition. 

625. Obs — In tracing the correspondent Derivatives from any Stem- 
TVord, certain changes will be observed. 

As the processes in language are uniform, the same mode of change 
will be found in words from the Saxon, the Latin and the Greek. 

The following principles are followed : 

(1.) The Stem- Word is a monosyllable. It must, therefore, have a 
vowel, and, generally, consonants before or after that vowel. 

(2.) In forming these derived Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs, 
a change is frequently made in the vowel, or in the consonants, or in 
both. 



276 



E N G L I S II G R A M M A R . 



(3.) The change of consonants, if any, consists in substituting one 
of the same class, or one of like formation. 

(4.) The change of vowels follows no certain rule, but is perhaps more 
frequently from one class to another. 

Thus, in English, we have cleave, cleft, cloven; and in Greek, lego, 
logos ; where we change a Head for a Lip vowel, while the consonants, 
or their classes, remain unaltered. 

In, and from the Latin, we have such changes as follows - 



Change of Vowels. 

Latin. English Derivatives. Change. 

Teneo, tentum, to hold, contain, continue, e for ai and i 

Tango, tactum, to touch, contingent, contiguous, a for i. 

Zntrare (intra, ire), to go in, enter, % for e. 

Cwrro, cwrsum, course, u for ou. 

Clamo, to cry out, claim, a for ai. 

Abwndo, to abound, abound, u for ou. 

Jwngo, jzmctum, to join, u for oi. 

Sec. 5. — Stem -Words. 



Derivatives from Boots. 

G26. As Derivatives are formed from Stem-Words, so are Stem- Words 
from Roots. Therefore, 

627. Roots are the sources of Stem- Words (571, 572). 

628. The formation of Stem- Words from Boots, is like the 
formation of Branch- Words from Stem- Words, or like any 
of the derivations. 

As in forming Branch-Words we have one primary motion 
in the stem, which is then modified by Prefixes, just so we 
have in the root a primary and simple mode of motion, or of 
rest after motion, which is modified in forming Stem- Words. 

629. The mode of modifying is, usually, by changing the 
vowel of the radical syllable, or by changing the consonants 
trom one to another of the same class. 



DERIVATION OF STEM-WORDS FROM ROOTS. 2ll 

645. The mode of defining Stem-Words from Roots is pre- 
cisely the same as in other Verbal definitions. We unite the 
meaning of the Boot with that of the modifications, and thus 
define the Stem- Word. 

661. For illustration, two simple Roots will be taken as examples. 

Stem-Words, and some Particles, will be formed from these two. 

By these two specimens, the learner can understand the process for 
all others. Full examples will be given. In reading them, the learner 
will remember that they are not only given to prove a law of language, 
but to fix words from Latin and Greek in his memory. 

The two selected are from the Sanscrit : 

1. M. — R. = Motion or Action. 

2. SAD — ■ ST. = Rest, or the stopping of motion. 

I. — These will be first taken separately, and the idea of Motion will 
be found in all Stem-Words and Derivatives from the first; and 
the idea of arrested motion, or Rest, in all those from the second. 

II. — They will then be combined with a vowel between them, and 
the primary idea will be found to be that of Motion and Rest 
combined. 

III. — They will then be combined without a vowel between, but with 
a vowel after, as in strain, and the idea will be found that of 
motion with resistance. 

The primary ideas will thus be seen passing into all the Derivatives. 

Root M *— Motion. 

I. 1st. This Root is the letter R, a vowel being regarded as no part 
of the Root, but only fused with the consonant to make a sound, thus 
represented: M. 

Its meaning is motion; (specially continuous motion, like that of fluids.) 

It is naturally significant. The breath flowing along the hollowed 
channel of the tongue, in the prolonged sound of R, is a natural imita- 
tion of continued motion, like that of the flowing of a stream. The 
rough (usually called the rolling) R, and the strong guttural R, naturally 
represent the motion as interrupted, or as crowded. 

The chest, head, and lip vowels, being placed before or after this con- 
sonant R, form secondary Roots, such as UR, AR, ER, IR, OR, and 
RA, RE, RI, RO, RU, which pass into the different families of the 
languages. 

They pass into the Greco-Latin family, and thence into English. 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. (a.) In Latin the Primary Root, R, is used to form the Infinitive 
Mood ; as, am-a-re, to love ; and the same law of formation passes into 
the languages derived from the Latin. Thus, French Verbs form their 
Infinitive by means of r; as, avoir, to have.* The same letter marks 
the Infinitive in Italian and Spanish. 

The Infinitive expresses the action of the Yerb simply. Its idea i3 
that of continued motion. 

The secondary Roots form the four conjugations. The first, has ar; 
the second, er long; the third, er short; the fourth, ir* 

The influence of these four conjugations is felt in the Yerbs of the 
English, and of all the languages derived from the Latin. 

Thus, by going to the Root, we have a key to the conjugations 
in Latin, and thence in Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. "We 
have a guide to the spelling of many English words, in which mistakes 
are often made. Derivatives in English, from the first conjugation, 
form a-tive and a-ble ; from the others, i-tive and i-ble ; as, indicative, 
negative, figurative, innumerable, from the first; transitive, infinitive, 
positive, perceptible, inexpressible, convertible, irresistible, destructible, 
from the others. 

(b.) In the Latin the root R forms the prefix re, expressing repeated 
motion ; as, reform, to form again. 

It also makes in Latin, (as it does in the whole Gothic family, and 
thence in English,) the comparative degree of Adjectives — that degree 

* The Verb expresses action, (including being,) as a motion in time or space. This 
motion may be viewed generally, or as modified ; and if modified, as beginning or 
continuing. 

The action, or being, generally, is represented by shortening the vowel, thus forming 
the third conjugation with short e. e.g. — Pendo, Pendere, pensum, to weigh, to pay; 
whence, in English, compendium, compensate, dispenser, expensive, pensive, pension, 
recompense, with their attendant words. 

The action modified is represented by lengthening the vowel in the other three conju- 
gations ; as, judicarc, to judge ; pendere, to hang. 

The first conjugation with a long, refers to the origin of the action, and expresses 
causing or making. Hence come the English terminations in ate, alive and aiion; as, 
duplicate, to make double ; duplication, the act of making double. 

The second conjugation, with s long, refers to the continuance of the being, or state, 
represented by the Yerb ; as, pendo, pendere, pensum, to hang; that is, to continue 
weighing down. [See pendo, pendere, in the previous example.] From this we have 
dependent, appendage, impending, perpendicular, suspend, pendulum, with their 
correspondents 

The fourth conjugation, with i long, refers to the continuance of the action - , repre- 
sented by the Verb ; as, audio, audire, auditum, to hear. Hearing is a continued 
listening. Hence come the English terminations, itive and ition; as, audible, not 
audable. 



DERIVATION OF STEM-WORDS FROM ROOTS. 273 

where the comparison is conceived as going on and not yet stopped ; as. 
knis, mild ; lenior, milder. The similarity of termination for the Com 
parative in English and Latin, is evident to inspection ; in the one being 
or, and the other, er. 

(c.) This root, R, forms in Latin ruo, to rush; i. e., falling motion; from 
whence is ruina, forming ruin, ruinous, etc., in English. 

It forms rivus, a stream, (a flowing motion,) from whence come arrive, 
rival, with other derivatives, and the word derivative itself, with derive, 
derivation, derivable, and the kindred words. 

It forms orior, ortus (4th dec), to rise, to spring (a rising motion). 
Hence we obtain orient, origin, abortion, with all their derivatives in 
English. 

It forms or-O, oratum, to speak (sound in motion, or words flowing). 
Hence come the English words adore, inexorable, oracle, oral, orator, 
oration, peroration, with numerous derivatives. 

It forms er-ro, to wander (a straying motion) ; whence error, aberra- 
tion, erratic, and their derivatives. 

It forms re-or, ratus, to think (thinking motion, or thoughts flowing). 
Hence come, in English, rational, ratio, reason, rate, ratify, with all 
their derivatives. 

It forms ar-s, artis, art (creative motion, ar — causing, making, as in 
the first conjugation ; so that art is what makes something from another 
thing). Hence come, in English, artful, artless, artifice, artisan, inert, 
artist, with all their derivatives. 

Such are some of the formations in Latin which affect the English 
language. 

2. The same root, R, passes into Greek, and thence into English. 

In Greek it forms rheo, (peo\ to flow, and hence to speak (flowing 
motion, or sounds in motion interrupted). Hence come, in English, 
catarrh, hemorrhage, resin, rheum, from the idea of flowing ; and rhetoric, 
with its Derivatives from that of speaking. Rhythm is from the same 
source. 

3. The Root R passes into the Gothic family of languages, and thence 
into English, through the Saxon. 

(a.) It forms, in English, the suffix er, for Nouns of the Person ; as, 
striker, he who strikes. This termination is found for the same pur- 
pose in the German, and in the branches of the Gothic family. It ex- 
presses the Agent, the Mover. 

(b.) It forms, in English, the termination for the comparative degree 
in Adjectives, viz.: er, as bright, brighter. This termination is found, 
for the same purpose in German, and in the branches of the Gothic 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

family; as gross, grosser (groat, greater). It expresses Comparison 
moving on to the Superlative. 

(c.) It forms in German two important prefixes, which have entered, 
through the Saxon, into some English words. They are ur and e.r, one 
expressing the origin of a motion, and tho other its termination. The 
first has the idea of beginning, and the second of completion. From 
the first we obtain ere, ere-while, erst, early, and oar * and from the 
second earn, earnest 

(d.) This Root forms English words expressive of motion ; as, run, 
race, rise, roll, rush, rear, rove, roam, row, round. 

The word air, which is nearly the same in several languages, appears 
to be an old compound, meaning breath moving. Hence, we have ear, 
and hear; the association with air is natural. From aer, Lat., many 
English words are formed, as aerial, aeronaut. 

The word year, implies the motion of time ; the word soar, motion 
upward. 

These examples will show how the Root M, with its idea of motion, 
passes through the leading families of language, into Stem- Words, and 
from them into Derivatives. 

4. This Root is then combined with other Consonants, (Gutturals, Den- 
tals, Labials, Linguals, Liquids,) giving rise to modifications of the idea 
of motion. 

(a.) With Gutturals, (including the bordering sounds,) the primary 
idea is that of motion in straight lines, in any direction. 

In the examples, correspondent formations in the other families are 
placed opposite to those from the Latin; as, 

Laiin. 
Rego, Rectum, to govern ; Ger., Reichs, a kingdom. 

Rectus, right, straight; " Recht, right. 

Recula, a rule. 

Rex, a king, a ruler; English, Right, Rake, Reach. 

Rogo, to ask. 

Ruga, a wrinkle; Eng. r ROUGH, in wrinkles on surface. 

Raucus, hoarse. 
Rigeo, to he cold, or frozen in 

wrinkles. 
Rigo, to ivater a field by irrigation 

in lines. 
Arcus, a bow, arch, or vault, made Greek, Arche (agxv), the beginning, 

in a curved line; rule, government ; Teaching the 

; first line. ■• : 



DERIVATION OF STEM-WORDS FROM ROOTS. 2S1 

Arceo (c as k), to press toward, to Greek, (eigyu) Eirgo, to confine to a 

confine to a line : line. 

Greek, Ergon (eoyov), a work ; English, Work ; motion to some end 
motion to some end regarded regarded as a point fixed, 

as a point fixed. 

From these Stem-Words many English words are derived; as, regal, 
regent, regiment, region, rector, rectangle, rectify, rectilinear, regular, cor- 
rect, direct, erect, interregnum; right, righteous, upright, with their Deriva- 
tives. From Rogo, abrogate, arrogate, arrogant, derrogate, interrogate, 
prerogative, prorogation, super-erogation, surrogate, with their derivatives. 
From Ruga, corrugate, and rugose, with their derivatives. 

From Rough, roughly, roughen, roughener, roughshod. From Rau- 
CUS, hoarse, (having a rough or wrinkled voice,) raucous, and rancity. 
From Rigeo, rigid, rigor, with their derivatives. From Ergon, surgery, 
chirurgery, energy, metallurgy, theurgy, with all their derivatives. 

From Ar-che, anarchy, monarchy, archaeology, archaism, archbishop, 
archangel, archduke, archetype, architect, architrave, chiliarch, heptarchy, 
hierarchy, oligarchy, patriarch, tetrarch. From Arcus, arch, arch-way, 
arcuate, archer, with all their derivatives. From Arceo, coerce, with 
derivatives. From Rigo, irrigate, with its derivatives. 

(b.) With Dentals, the primary idea is that of motion within lines along 
a surface ; as, 

Eng. : Road, But, Ride, Read, Root, Rod, Rinse. 

Lat.: Radius, the spoke of a wheel; Rota, a wheel; Radix, a root ; 
Rado, Rasum, to scrape, shave; Rete, a net; Rideo, Risum, to smile, 
laugh ; Ritus, a rite ; Rodo, Rosum, to gnaw, eat ; Rudis, rude, scratching 
the feelings ; Rus, the country, the expanse traced by lines of hills and 
streams. 

Greek, Riza, (fci^a,) a root, from whence liquorice. (See kindred, ra- 
dix, and root, in Latin and English.) Rhin, the nose, whence rhinocerous, 
and errhine, in English. 

From these are formed many English words ; as, Road-ivay, Road-stead, 
Reader, Reading. From Radius, Ray, Irradiate, Biradiate, Octoradiated, 
Radiant, Radius, Radiometer, with their Derivatives. From Radix, 
Radical, Eradicate, with their Derivatives. From Rado, Abrade, Abra- 
sion, Circumrasion, Erase, Erasure, Raze, Razor, with their derivatives. 
From Rete, Retina, Reticulated, Reticule, Reticular, with their derivatives. 
From Rideo, Ridicule, Risible, Deride, Derision, with their derivatives. 
From Ritus, Rite, Ritual, Ritualist. From Rodo, Arrode, Corrode, 
Erode, Corrosive, Erosion, with their derivatives. From Rudis, Erudite, 
Erudition, (since erudition is to remove the rudeness,) Rudiment, (a thing 



282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

for the rude and the untaught.) with their derivatives. From Rus, 
Rural, Rustic, with their derivatives, as Rusticate, Ruralize. 

(c.) With Labials, the idea is that of the motion, bent back, or broken* 
The idea of filling a space, is connected with the idea of arrested motion. 
Fluids stopped fill spaces. For example : 

Greek, Rhomb-os, (go/xj3oc from os/upa), to turn, whirl, wander); a 
rhomb, a whirlwind; a rhomb is a deviating square. 

Latin, Rumpo, ruptum, to break; Rapio, raptum, to snatch ; Rumen, the 
cud, the thing broken ; English, rob, reap, rive, raft, bereave, in the sense 
of breaking; and roam, room, rime, (hoar-frost,) in the sense of expan* 
sion. In Latin, ramus, a branch, is from the idea of bending, and 
rumor, from expansion. 

From these are formed rhomboid, like a rhomb; abrupt, corrupt, dis- 
ruption, eruption, interruption, rupture, incorruptible, with their deriva- 
tives; From Rapio: rape, rapture, ravish, ravage, enrapture, enravish, 
with their derivatives; From Rumen, ruminant, ruminate, (to chew or 
break the cud); From the Saxon, robber, robbery, reaper, bereavement, 
roaming, roomy, house-room, school-room, rimy. 

These examples will show how the idea of motion is modified, and the 
modification expressed by classes of consonants. 

Such are derivations from the first Root R. 

I. 2d. The other Root is the Sanscrit SAD, which means rest; the 
stopping of motion. 

Its radical consonants are two Dentals ; the first continuant, and the 
second concludent. 

It is naturally significant of the meaning, which is the stopping of 
motion. 

The continuance of the motion is imitated by the continuant S. This 
is formed by the breath continuing to pass at a single point. 

The concluding of the motion is imitated by the concludent D, and 
equally by T. These letters are formed by the breath for their forma- 
tion, being arrested or concluded by the complete contact of the tongue 
in sounding them. 

This Root passes into the Classic and Gothic families, and thence into 
English words. 

Through the Latin it forms these Stem- Words used in English: 

1. Sto, STAtum, to stand; as, stable, standing firm. 

2. Sisto, to set, to make stand, to stop;' as, assist 

3. Statuo, to ordain, to set ; as, statute, a law set. 

4. Stagnum, standing water ; as, to stagnate. 



DERIVATION OF STEM-WORDS FROM ROOTS. 283 

5. Stigo, to stick in ; to sting, to prick ; as, ins%ate. 

6. Stinguo, Stinctum, to prick ; to set marks in ; as, disfo'wgfuish. 

7. Stimulus, a goad, or spur (stinging) ; as, to stimulate. 

8. Stino, to fix, to set in a place; as, destine. 

9. Stipo, to set close, to crowd ; as, cos^'ve, constipated. 

10. Stirps, a stem, or root; as, exforpate. 

11. Stupeo, to be stupid; of stationary mind. 

12. Studeo, to stacfo/ ; to make the mind stay by a thing. 

13. Stultus, foolish ; same primitive idea as stupeo. 

14. Still a, a drop ; laying, tea ping. 

15. Stella, & star ; staying, teaving. 

Through the Greek it forms these Stem-"Words used in English : 
Sto (crao, obs), to stand, or mane stand; whence apostacy, hydro- 
statics, etc. 
Stello (oreTJiu) to send ; (to make to leave a fixed point where the 

sender stands) ; whence, apos^te, epistle. 
Sten-os (gtevoc ), narrow ; (same root as English stint, stingy) ; steno- 
graphy, ste?20graphic. 
Sthenos (adsvoc), strength; (as in English, staunch, stalwart,) from 

the idea of standing against pressure; as, asthenic. 
Stichos, (otlxoc) a row, or line, (as if stuck down by points); see 

Latin stigo, stigma, and English stick, sting) ; as, distich. 
Stigma (crc/fia) a mark-, (stack in); a brand-mark of reproach. 
Stoa (oToa), a portico; a standing place; hence, staics, staical, 

staicism. 
Stoma (arofia), the mouth; the stepping place of breath or food; whence, 

stamach, the inward mouth. 
In English it forms among others stand, stop, stay, step, stair, stamp, 
stare, stow, stub, stingy, stunt, stutter, in which the stopping of motion is 
implied. Other words make more prominent the idea of a state of rest, 
or a support ; as, stem, stack, stiff, staff, steel, still, stake, stick, stall, stalk, 
stale, stalwart, starch, stead, steed, stile, stilt, stock, stone, stool, store, stout, 
stud, stump. 

With a vowel in the Root, it forms these English Stem-Words through 
the Latin : 
Sedeo, Sessum, to sit ; hence, English session. 
Sedo, to make sit ; hence, English sedate. 

* As every part of language is imitative and significant, the words stilla, stella, and 
stello, have similar consonants, those before the vowel expressing rest, and the liquid 
I, a motion. The drop falls, the star moves, the person sent goes. But the drop 
hangs stationary before falling, and the star stays in the sky, and the sender stands at 
his central point. 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Applied to expressions of quantity it means the stopping of increase, 
and thus forms 

Satis, enough ; hence, English satisfy. 

Satio, to sate ; hence, English satiate. 

Saturo, to fill ; hence, English saturate. 

Both the latter are from Satis. 

In the Greek the first consonant became worn away by the lapse of 
time, and a hard breathing of like formation with S, took its place. It 
forms 

Hedra (eaga), a seat; hence, English cathedral. 

Hedron, a side; hence, English polyhedron, dodecahedron. 

The latter of these is derived from the former ; side from .seat, and 
seat from rest. A side terminates the extension; and in English the 
same association is seen of side, with seat, in the common consonants 
SD and st. 

With the vowel it also forms in English sit, set, settle, side, and others. 

Sit and Set, with the distinction of the intransitive and transitive 
sense, we can trace back to the Saxon sitan and saetan ; to the German 
sitzen and setzen, and thence back to the Sanscrit. 

By the insertion of a Lip Yowel in the Root, the original idea is 
transferred to the rest or repose of the feelings, in what gives satisfaction. 

"We thus have in English, 

Sweet ; Saxon, swete ; German, suss ; Gothic, sutis. 

In Latin, Suadeo, Suasum, to persuade ; hence, English persuasion. 

That persuades which satisfies the understanding, the feelings, or the 
will. 

By putting st at the end of the syllable, we have the termination for 
the Superlative of Adjectives in st, which is formed in the Gothic 
family of languages; as, high, highest; brave, braved. The idea of rest 
from motion here is applied to comparison. The comparison stops with 
the superlative. 

The termination si is also at the end of many words signifying cessa- 
tion, boundary, rest; as, 

Rest, east, west, cast, fast, last, mast, coast, chest, nest, crest, waist, fist, 
mist, dust, rust, trust, most 

Grist seems to be an old compound from grind and stand. Grist is 
the grain that stands or stays to be ground. Lust, list, seem also to be 
old compounds, from stand and look; nest, from in and stay. 

Such are the formations from the second Root SAD.* 

*It is not supposed that the learner will do more than read the examples. What 
is to he fixed in the mind is the law of language which is illustrated. The meaning 
of the Stem-Words will become familiar by practice. 



DERIVATION OF STEM-WORDS FROM ROOTS. 285 

We thus see the derivations from the Roots, one M, signifying motion, 
and one, SAD, with its secondary ST, indicating rest (661, 1.) 

II. If we now unite the two, with a vowel between them, the idea 
will be that of nioilun and rest combined, 

ST being first and R last, will indicate the rest, or stability before the 
motion ; as, stir, star, stair, stare, steer, store, storm. So in Latin sterno, 
to strew, and in Greek, stereos (o-Teoegc), solid. 

r being first and st last, will indicate the transition from motion to 
rest; as, rest, roost, rust, roast. 

The word stir indicates a passing from rest to motion, and the word 
rest the reverse. The change in the idea is imitated by the change of 
the consonants. 

III. If we unite the two Roots on the same side of the radical vowel, 
that is with a vowel after them, the idea will be that of motion with re- 
sistance. (661, 3.) This implies, of course, effort and contrary motions. The 
letters, then, in every Stem- Word will be S, T, R, to represent this idea. 

From Gothic sources are in English the Stem-Words strain, struggle, 
strive, stretch, strong, strength, string, strand, strike, stroke, strip, stress, 
Strap, stripe, straddle, stride, strait, strew, st/raw, stray, streak, stream, 
stroll, strut, with their Derivatives and Compounds. 

From Latin are 

Sterno, Stratum, to spread, throw ; hence, stratum* 

Struo, Structum, to build. 

Strangulo, to strangle. 

Strenuus, brave, vigorous. 

Strideo, to creak. 

Stringo, Strictum, to bind. 

From Greek are 

Stratos, (argaroc) an army, from the idea of strewing, spreading out. 

Strophe (uTeg^u, to turn), a turning ; hence, apostrophe. 

Thus, from two Roots, many Stem- Words have been formed. The 
common law of language has been exhibited. 

632. The process thus shown in two Roots could be applied to others. 
The Stem-Words in English, which, for illustration, may be supposed 
four thousand in number, are formed in this manner from a small num- 
ber of Roots. From these few Roots the four thousand Stem- Words, 
and from these Stem- Words about eighty or one hundred thousand 
words are formed. In thi3 way the English language is made. 

633. The primary ideas of the Roots, present a certain number of 
definite and simple modes of motion and rest. Classes of consonants in 
definite combinations are used to represent these motions. Changes of 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the radical vowels express modifications of the primitive. The meaning 
then passes from motions to represent the inward world of thoughts and 
feelings, the outward world of things, and the relations of words to each 
other in the world of signs. Thus, the idea of standing under is applied 
in English to the mind in the word understanding ; in Latin, to things, 
in the name substance, and to words, in the name substantive. The let- 
ters of the Root are kept to their class or their modes of formation. 
The primary sense and sound thus pass, with unbroken vitality, into all 
derivatives and combinations. This is the mode in which the English 
language is formed. To understand the language this conception must 
be in the mind. To carry out this process in each important word 
belongs to a good dictionary. 

634. From these examples it must be evident that words are natur- 
ally SIGNIFICANT. 

This is now fully established by the investigations of philology. 

Language is imitation. 

"We may imitate the sounds of things. Such words are then formed as 
buzz, murmur, hiss, crackle, splash, plash, roar. 

We may imitate the things themselves. To do this we consider objects 
as formed by certain motions. These motions we imitate. 
* "We may imitate by bodily gestures. We then form sign language, 
such as is used by mutes, and by the Indians, hunters and trappers, over 
the western part of the Continent of North America. 

We may imitate by the movements of the tongue and vocal organs, 
or more strictly, by the movements of the breath among the vocal 
organs. We then form spoken language. 

Sign language is thus made by external gesture ; as by the fingers, 
hands, face, frame. Spoken language is by gesture within the mouth ; 
as by tongue and lips, causing various currents of the breath.* 

* Thus, circular motion would be represented in sign language by holding the finger 
of one hand for the centre, and drawing the outline of a circle around it with the finger 
of the other. In spoken language the same idea could be imitated in a Root by a 
guttural consonant indicating the centre, and the liquid R (strictly the breath forming 
the sound of R) imitating the curving motion. We should thus have GR, KR, with 
the different vowels. 

Accordingly we find in English GiRth, GiRd, GiMle, GORden, from the Saxon ; ciRcww, 
ciRcle, from the Latin ; Gynation from the Greek ; the sound of c and g in these words 
being originally hard. In all of them is the idea of a circular line enclosing a space. 
We have even the Celtic word eaten t used in Scotland and Ireland, for a heap of stones 
in a conical form. 

The same idea would be given in correspondent derivatives by such words as cir- 
cumference, periphery. 

The sign made by the wandering Indian, the Root GR, or KR, and the correspondent 
derivatives, would all come back to the same original idea. 



practice: forming stem-words. 287 

The one is so expanded that all men are conscious of the imitation. 
The other is so minute, that, though felt by instinct in all men, it escapes 
the first cursory observation. 

In the course of ages words change. But this instinct (developed in 
cultivated races) keeps the change from proceeding so far as to allow 
words unsuitable to ideas. 

635. The original motions thus imitated are but few in number. 
They are about the same with those which we have seen under Prepo- 
sitions and Prefixes. 

As a general approximation, we may say that by about twenty primary 
motions, we can form about three hundred Roots ; from these about four 
thousand Stem- Words, and from these a language sufficient for all 
human purposes, containing more than eighty thousand words. 

636. The law for the formation of language being now understood, 
practice should follow. 

Examples have been multiplied beyond what is needful for illustration so as to fur- 
nish materials for exercises. 

The first exercise consists in defining various Stem- Words by means 
of one Root. 

For this exercise there must be given — 1. The meaning of the Root 
(if possible in a single word) — 2. The accepted and common meaning of 
each Stem-Word. That which is to be made is the definition. The 
accepted meaning is to be drawn from the sense of the Root in a verbal 
definition. 

This exercise promotes a fourth part of the twelfth attainment. 

Directions. 

1. Above, write the Root, the classes of its constituent letters, and its 
sense, in one line ; with the equivalent letters of the same class in a 
second and third line. 

2. Below, write in columns the Stem- Words, with their accepted 
meanings, placing together those which come from the same family. 

3. Draw out by each Stem- Word a brief definition, which will include 
the sense of the Root. 

Example. 

For an example a new Root will be taken. 

It is one made by the union of a Labial with a Dental, called a Labio- 
Dental. 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It may be represented without a vowel by any Labial with any Den- 
tal, as Pd, Bd, etc. ; with a vowel, by the most open vowel, as PAD. 

The primary general idea is, to put. 

The primary specific idea is, TO put to. 

The primary contrasted idea, expressed usually by a change in the 
rowel, is, to put from. 

VpD or PAD = Labial + Dental = 1. To Put— 2. To PUT to. 

Consti- j 1. Labials P, B, M, F, V, W, { u u 

tuents* 1 2. Dentals T, D, N, S, Z, TH, Th, J 

Latin Stem-Words. 

stem. meaning. verbal definition. 

1. Pono, Positum, to put, to place, = simple- idea of the Poot. 

2. Peto, Petitum, to seek, «= to put the will on anything; 

(mental sense.) 

3. Puto, Putatum, to think, *= to put the mind on an object; 

(mental sense.) 

4. Video, Visum, to see, — to put a look on an object ; 

(bodily sense.) 

5. Poto, Potatum, to drink, =* to put fluid in ; (bodily sense.) 

6. Patior, PASSUM, to suffer, « having tilings put on ; (mental 

sense.) 
«== putting forth assent ; (mental 

sense.) 
—> parties put together; (social 

sense.) 
— a place for putting in ; (social 

seuse.) 
•— i what is put forth, or on; (bodily 

sense.) 
11. Fodio, Fossum, to dig, «== to put a hole in the ground; 

(bodily sense.) 

Greek Stem- Words. 

1. PHYSIS ((j>v(ug), nature, = putting forth of being; (physi- 

cal sense.) 

* These constituents show that any consonant in the first line united to any conso- 
nant in the second line, may form a Stem-Word, whose primary sense is to put. It is 
not certain before examination that all such words will have been made in tho 
languages. 



1. Fides, 


faith, 


8. Fedus, 


a league, 


9. Vas, 


a vessel, 


10. Pes, Pedis, 


a foot, 



STEM- WORDS F ROM ROOTS. 



289 



2. Photos (0of, <j>uro(;), light, = a putting forth of beams ; (physical 

sense.) 

3. Piiyton ((j>vtov), a plant; — > putting forth growth ; (physical sense.) 

4. Phone ((puvn), a sound, = putting forth voice; (bodily sense.) 

5. Pathos (nadoc), feeling, = sense of things put on; (bodily sense.) 

[See L. potior .] 

6. Pino (mvu), to drink, = to pwtf fluids in; (bodily sense. [See 

L. poto.] 
1. Pous(7rouf, 7ro(5of), /ootf, =a what is #'«£ forth, or on; (bodily 

sense.) [See L pes.~\ 

Native Stem- Words. 



1. Put; motion from — to; =- sense of Root, as Latin Pono; (general.) 

*= to put forth growth; (physical sense.) [See 

G. Phyton.] 
■*■ to put forth will in word; (mental sense.) 

(See L. Ptto). 
mm to put forth lips ; (bodily sense.) 
■=» to put close together. " 
■— what is put in, or to ; (bodily sense ) [See 

L. Poto] 
mm place for putting in ; (bodily sense.) [See 

L. Vas.] 
mmt what is put forth, or on ; (bodily sense.) 

[See L. Pes, G-. Pous.'] 

— sense of things jpwtf on; (bodily sense.) 
[See L. Patior, G. Pathos.] 

—■ to jm£ blows on ; (bodily sense.) 

= to put into a fluid ; (bodily sense.) 

mm to jpw£ together, to join ; (social sense.) 

[See L. Fedus.] 
**= a place for putting the arrow. 

— a space putting into the ground. [See L. 

Fodio.] 

* Fetter, an old compound = foot-ring. 

fTho Hindoo pata, means to kill; the Latin venenum, poison; the English bane, 
poison; the Greek pheno (<j>evo)), to kill. The radical syllables in all these words 
have the same class of consonants, a Labial and a Dental. The common idea is to 
tafce life by a stroke. 

% Compare^ with Latin fodio, fossum, whence in English fosse and fossil, with tho 
derivatives of the Latin. 



2. Bud, 

3. Bid, 

4. Pout, 

5. Bind, 

6. Food, Fodder, 

T. Pot, 
*8. Foot, 
9. Paly, 

+10. Beat, 

11. Bathe, 

12. Wed, 

13. Butt, 
%\A. Pit, 



290 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Example. 



For a second example, the contrasted meaning will now be taken. 
The learner will thus be introduced to other important Stem- Words* 

VpB or PAD mm Labial + Dental == 1. To put — 3. To put from. 



dnsti- ( 1. Labials P, B, M , F , Y ,W 1 Separation; Disappearance; 
jentS; \ 2. Dentals T,D,N,S,Z, Til, lb, £ Expansion. 



Consti- 
tuents: 



Latin Stem-Words. 



stem. 

1. Pateo, (Intrans.) 

2. Pandeo, (Trans.) 

3. Yiduo,* 

4. Yanus,| 

5. Yenia, 

6. Fatuus, 
*l. Finio, 

8. Finis, 

9. Puto, 

10. FUNDO, FUSUM, 



MEANING, 
to he open, 
to open, 

to part, deprive of, 
vain, 
pardon, 
foolish, 
to end, 



the end, (from Yerb finio.) 



DEFINITION. 
— ■ put abroad. 
*= to put abroad. 
«== to put apart. 
= the substance put away. 
= punishment put away 
=» sense put away, 
to put a thing away. 



to lop, 
to pour, 

Greek Stem-Words. 



to put something off. 
to put fluids out. 



1. Petao (nerau ), to expand, (L. pateo.) = to put abroad. 

2. Petalon {neralov), a leaf, (from Yerb petao; a leaf is expanded) 

3. PateoJ (nareu), to waZA; a&owf, = motion put forth abroad. 

Native Stem- Words. 

Path, wide, waste, want, wane, widow, faint, went, ban, are all 
connected with the ideas of expansion, separation, decline, disappearance ; 
with the motion of putting out or away. Thus, ban is, originally, an. 
edict of separation, (like Greek Anathema.) 

Such is the first exercise. 

637. The second exercise consists in writing out merely the Stem- 
Words derived from one Root, and defining the Stem- Word orally. 

* The same idea is in the English words wide, widow, and in others from the Gothic 
family. 
f The same idea is in the English words wane, want. 
X This is like the English word path; a line for motion abroad. 



ROOTS AS SOURCES OF DERIVATION. 201 

In this exercise nothing is given but the Root, and its sense. The 
pnpil lias learned the Stem-Words by the previous exercise, and now 
draws the list and meaning from his memory. 

Directions. 

Above, write (as in the last example) the Root, its constituents, sense, 
and equivalents. 

Below, prepare a vertical column for each language to which the 
Stem- Words are to be referred. Over these draw a horizontal line, with 
a break for distinguishing the Classic from the Gothic family. Mark 
each column with the first letter of its language. Place in the columns 
the Stem- Words only, without their meanings. 

Then define and explain. the table orally. 

No example is needed. The same process will also be required in the 
exercises under the next chapter. 

638. The third exercise is the analysis of words given from the dic- 
tionary. 

Directions. 

Divide the word so as to indicate the Radical Syllable, the Prefixes 
and Suffixes. Give the meaning of each. Then define the whole word 
according to the method previously given. 

Example: The word to be analyzed is incompressibility. The Radical 
Syllable is press. The Prefixes are in and con. meaning not and together. 
The Suffixes are in the syllables, bil and ty. They show it to be a 
Second Noun of the Thing formed from the Adjective, in, ble. The in- 
serted vowels are euphonic (631-3). 

Hence, by verbal definition, 

Incompressibility = state of being incompressible. 

Incompressible =* not capable of being pressed together. 



Sec 6. — Roots as the Sources of Derivatives and Compounds. 

639. We have gone from Compounds to Derivatives, with Suffixes; 
thence to those with Prefixes ; thence to Stem- Words ; and finally to 
Roots. 

It was said that after this method had explained Composition and 
Derivation, we might reverse the process; (Sec. 596, Method.) 
This is now to be done. 

640. The following exercise combines in one the previous exercises under 
the Composition and Derivation of words. It is for the twelfth attainment. 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It consists in passing from a Root to all words, and parts of words, in 
English which are formed from it. 

Directions. 
1. Take any Root and write the Stem- Words from it. Be ready to 
define. 

Example. 



VfD or PAD =~ Lab. + Dent. — Gen. To put; Spec. < 2 * rj 
Consti- j 1. Labials P, B, M, F, V, W. 



TO PUT TO. 
TO PUT FROM. 



tuents: ( 2. Denta 


ils T, D, JS T , s, : 


6, Til, Th. 


CLASSIC FAMILY. 


GOTHIC FAMILY, 


L. 


G. 


K 


Pono, 


Physis, 


Put. 


Peto, 


Photos, 


Bid. 


Puto, 


Phyton, 


Bud. 


Yideo, 


Phone, 


Bind. 


Patior, 


Pathos, 


Pain. 


etc., 


etc., 


etc. 



2. Select any one of these Stem-Words, and from it form its Branch- 
Words, by Prefixes. 

For example, Select Pono, and combine it with all the Latin Prefixes 
which it can receive, ad, ante, con, circum, etc., according to the rules 
given. 

3. Select any one of these Branch- Words, and from it form the corres- 
pondent Derivatives by means of Suffixes. 

e. g. : The Branch Word may be compose. From this Verb form the 
correspondent Nouns of the Person and Thing, the Adjectives, the Ad- 
verbs, with the second Nouns of the Thing, drawn from them. 

Include Derivatives made from the Stem- Word without a Prefix ; as, 
Position, Positive, Positively, Positiveness. 

4. Form Compounds. 

Suppose, for example, the Stem- Word to be Photos. It forms the 
compound word Photography, where one part of the compound means 
light, and the other to write or trace. So, the English Band, from the 
Stem-Word, Bind, has compounds, as seen in Wrist-band, Husband, and 
other words. 

A few important Derivatives and Compounds will be enumerated. 
They are such as will be formed by the exercise previously given. 



PRACTICE IN DERIVATION FROM ROOTS. 293 

1. Latin. 

Pono ; position, compose, depose, dispose, repose. 
Peto; petition, appetite, competition, repetition. 
Puto ; compute, dispute, impute, reputation. 
Video ; vision, visit, visor, advise, evidence, iproviderrt 
Poto ; Ration, potable, composition, poftilent. 
Patior ; passion, passive, compassion, impassibility. 
Fides ; faith, fldehty, fiduciary, confide, infidel. 
Fedus ; federal, federative, con/eaerate, confederation. 

2. Greek. 

Physis ; physiological, p/w/siology, metaphysics. 

Photos ; photography, pftotonomics, phosphorus, photometer. 

Phyton ; phytology, zoophyte, phy tography, phy tolite. 

Phon-e ; p/ioftology, phonics, euphony, symphony. 

Pathos; paretic, apathy, sympathy, antipathy. 

Pino; symposium, symposiac. 

By inspection, the Radical Syllables in these words are seen to contain 
the constituents of the Root — a Labial and a Dental. The primitive idea 
of putting enters into them all. 

From the Stem- Words, with the contrasted idea, the following Deriva- 
tives and Compounds will appear : 

3. Latin. 

Pateo j patont, patentee, patefaction, patent-right. 
Pandeo; expand, expansion, expansive, expansible. 
Viduo; avoid, void, divide, w'a*ual, viduage. 
Yanus; vain, vanity, vaunt, vanish, evanescent. 
Venia; venial, venialness, venially. 
Fatuus; fatuity, infatuated, in/a^uation. 
Finio, Finis ; final, finish, finite, in/kite, definition* 
Puto (to lop) ; amputate, amplication. 
Fundo; fusion, affusion, confusion, diffusion. 

4. Greek. 

Pateo; pafrol, peripatetic, peripateticism. 
Petalon; apeteious, bipetfalous, tripetfalous. 

5. From native Stems, path-way, faintness, /ami-hearted, wide-Tolling 
wasteful, waning, widowhood, oanish, banishment, contraband. 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

By inspection, the Eadical Syllables in all these words are seen to con- 
tain, for sound, the same constituents — a Labial plus a Dental ; and for 
sense, the idea of putting abroad, or away. 

641. In this process for forming the words of the language, we see 
sense and sound passing by a uniform process from Roots to Stem- 
Words, and from these to all Derivative and Compound Words ; (562 
page 227.) 

The same method can be applied to other Roots, and thus the whole 
forest of the language be produced. 

It is enough for education to teach the method. Its endless applica- 
tions, learners can make for themselves by the constant use of good dic- 
tionaries. 

Whoever will study his own language in this way, can acquire the 
words of foreign languages with facility. 

In Greek, Latin, and German, he will find: 1. Kindred Stem- Words 
drawn from the same Roots and primary motions, by the same method; 

2. Suffixes under the same classes — Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives Adverbs ; 

3. Prefixes and Prepositions, reducible to the same heads of motion ; 4. 
Compounds of the same combinations. 

He can follow all these into the branches of the Latin family, Italian, 
Spanish, French; everywhere meeting the same elements, and finding 
formations following the same method. 

The same is true if he pass in the Gothic family, from the German, 
into the Scandinavian branches, the Danish and Swedish. 

He may thus learn a number of languages in the time usually given 
to one. Each one acquired by a right method, will be half the acquisi- 
tion of the other. 

Apart from such attainments, he will find immense assistance in the 
sciences ; he will understand technical terms. 

This subject also furnishes one of the exercises in composition.* 

642. From the form of the word, we now pass to its signification. 

* The Derivation and Composition of Words, with Verbal Definitions, from lists given 
for exercise. 



words: definition. 295 



CHAPTER VI. 

Signification * 

643. The meanings of the words of a language are explained in its 
dictionaries, and may be stated in a Yerbal or Logical Definition. 

644. A Verbal Definition is one drawn from the form of the 
word; a Logical Definition is one drawn from the class to 
which belongs the thing defined. 

Thus, in the following examples, the first definition is Verbal, the 
second and third are Logical: 

Unheard, not heard. 

Eagle, a bird of prey. 

Square, a plane figure bounded by four straight lines, all equal, and 
forming four right angles. 

645. For distinction, the word sense will be used for explanations 
given by Verbal Definitions; signification, for those by Logical Defini- 
tions; meaning, for both. 

646. Significations are, accordingly, the meanings of words 

as given by Logical Definitions. 

Yerbal Definitions were treated of in the last chapter. The present 
regards Significations. 

The subject is designed to promote the following attainment: 

The thirteenth attainment in language consists in ability : (1.) To define 
words logically ; (2.) To classify their significations ; (3.) To command them 
readily. 

The deficiencies to be obviated are, vagueness in the conception of the 
meaning of words; difficulty in finding expressions for ideas. 

Sec 1. — Definitions. 
64 1. The materials for a Logical definition are furnished by a previous 
classification. 

* For this subject, the reader is supposed to have, for reference and use, both an 
Alphabetical Dictionary, and a Dictionary of Categories, such as " Roget's Thesaurus of 
English Words and Phrases." (460.) 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

648. Cassification is arrangement in classes, proceeding by subdivi- 
sions from a class more general, to one less general. 

It may be compared to the arrangement of books in a Library. 

649. The subdivisions are made by expressing the differences between 
class and class. 

Thus, we would distinguish books by the distinctions or differences of Literary, 
Scientific, Historical, and others. 

650. Names are given to the divisions produced by these distinctions. 
Thus, we would give the names Literature, Science, History, to some divisions 

of the Library. 

651. The parts of a classification are, thus, Differences and Names. 
The Differences are usually, when practicable, in the form of Adjectives ; 
the Names, of Nouns. 

Ex. : Difference, Historical; Name, History, 

652. A Logical Definition for any name in a classification, is made by 
combining together, in a correct sentence, the name of the class to which 
it belongs, together with the intervening differences. 

Examples will be found under practice. 

653. A definition is complete when it uses all the differences; incom- 
plete, when a part of them ; strict, when it follows the order of the clas- 
sification ; loose, when it deviates ; popular, when it inserts other words 
for easy apprehension ; scientific, when it does not. In any of these 
forms it may be called Logical, in distinction from Etymological. 

Examples belong to practice. 

654. As with a classification, given, we can form a definition, so from 
a definition, given, we can reconstruct a classification. 

For examples, see 

Directions foe Practice. 

655. (1.) Form vertical columns, marked successively, K, for name, 
and D., for difference, with the natural numbers applied to each, in order. 
Place the most general name and difference farthest on the left, where 
the number of each is one, the next and less general, under the number 
two, and continuously, in the same manner, so far as the classification is 
to be carried. If the language do not furnish any difference or name, 
place a mark of interrogation. 

(2.) To form definitions, combine together in a grammatical sentence, 
the name of the class to which it belongs, together with the intervening 
differences. (11.) 



DEFINITIONS FROM A CLASSIFICATION. 



297 



K. 1 
Space, j 
(of land,) ( 

Space, j 
(of water,) ( 

Time, { 

(expressed) ( 



Surrounded 
by water, 

Surrounded 
by land. 

Verbally, 
(by verb,) 



Example. 

iV. 2 



Z>. 2 



Quantity, \ Continuous, \ 



Tense, 

Magni- 
tude, 



i Largest, j 

Smaller* \ 

j Largest, 
\ Smaller, 

i Declaring com- j 
pleted Action, ( 

^Having length j 

only, \ 

Having length j 

M 



iv. 3 

Continent. 
Island. 

Ocean. 
Lake. 

Perfect 

Tenses. 



Line. 

Surface. 



Habit, 



i 

L and breath, 

| Good, | VntTUE, J :/?**» ^ ai j^ j Justiot, 

j Indolence. 



t 



Bad, 



•J Vice, 



j Mental, 



Definitions can now be made for the words in the columns of names. 

1. Form an incomplete definition by merely giving the highest class ; 
as, An Island is a Space of Land ; Tense is Time expressed ; A Line is 
Quantity ; Justice is a Habit. 

2. Give a more full definition by adding the differences ; as, An Island 
is a Space of Land surrounded by water, and smaller than a Continent ; 
Tense is Time expressed by a Verb; A Line is Quantity, continuous, 
having length only ; Justice is a good Habit, giving what is due. 

3. Give a less general definition by using but a single difference ; as, 
a Perfect Tense is one (or a Tense) declaring completed Action. ; a Line is 
magnitude, having length only; Justice is a Virtue, giving what is due; 
Patience is a Virtue, bearing what is hard ; Indolence is a Mental Vice. 

Grammatical Substitutes may be employed; as, extent for space. 
"Words may be iuserted to assist the clearness of the definitions. Words 
of exception, as usually, generally, may be inserted in loose definitions. 
The more general difference may be put after the less general, instead of 
before it. 

By this method, definitions can be formed from a given classification. 

(3.) To restore a classification (654) from a definition given, have a 
number of vertical columns, marked and numbered as before. Taking 
the given definition, divide it into its parts, and give the parts corres- 
pondent marks. Then place the most general name of the definition in 
the first column of names, and the subsequent differences in the column 
of differences. 



298 ENGLISH GUAM MAR. 



Example. 



Definition: A. line is quantity continuous, having length only. 

K l D. 1 N* D* K* 

Classif.: I Quantity, | Continuous, | ? | Having length only, | Line. 

656. Such i3 the course for acquiring one part of the thirteenth 
attainment. 

Exercises in written compositions, drawn from this subject, are the 
following : 

1. Divide subjects. 

(a.) Begin with common things. Let the pupil be required to write 
the parts of familiar objects, as of a 7iow.se, ship, tree, gun. 

(&.) Next, let him give the divisions of any subject of study which he 
has mastered, and from the divisions construct definitions of his own, 
with remarks. Inversely, from definitions learned in those subjects, let 
him construct tables of classification, and write remarks. 

(c.) Proceeding to less familiar subjects, let the outlines of the division 
of a subject be given, from which he may construct a table of classifica- 
tion, and form divisions, with remarks. 

2. Expand or contract style. 

(a.) To expand a proposition, substitute the definition for the word ; 
to contract, substitute the word for the definition;* as, 

Contracted, "He was patient;" expanded, "However hard were cir- 
cumstances, he never failed to bear them calmly." 

(&.) To expand, substitute the parts for the whole, both in the subject 
and predicate of the proposition; to contract, put the whole for the 
parts. 

"The army is in gooci discipline." To expand this, enumerate the 
divsions of the army, and the parts of good discipline. 

" Virtues are honored." To expand this even to the extent of a full 
written composition, enumerate, from the subject, the different virtues, 
and from the predicate, the honors bestowed. 

3. Make style vivid. 

To animate the expression, substitute a part for the whole, or a par- 
ticular for a general term ; to subdue the expression, do the reverse. 

"Forty guns were on an eminence." "Forty black muzzles yawned 
on the crest of a hill before them." " Ten thousand men, of the infant- 
ry, were sent." "Ten thousand bayonets crossed the mountain." 

The muzzle is a part of the gun ; the bayonet, of the arms. 

Obs. These exercises prepare for understanding and using the figures 

* Aristotle, lihet., book iii, c 6, 1. 



signification: general terms. 299 

of language, called Pleonasm, Ellipsis, Synecdoche, Metonymy \ Distribution 
to be explained in their place. 

Sec. 2. — Principles op Formation. 

657. The principles of signification shown by definitions can be ex- 
tended to all the words of the language. 

658. The signification of a word presents an answer to the question 
" What? " when applied to that word. N 

Example : What is a rose ? A flower. What is a triangle ? A figure. What is a 
maple? A tree. What is an eagle ? A bird. 

659. The natural effect of the same question, when applied to the 
principal word in the answer itself, is to make a second answer whose 
leading word is more general. "When it is applied to the principal word 
in the second answer, the effect is to produce in the third answer a word 
more general still. This goes on continuously till the most general term 
is reached which the language can furnish. There the questions must 
stop, since the answers can no more be given by the language.* 

e. g. : What is a flower ? It is part of a plant. What is a plant ? One kind of organi- 
zed matter. What is matter ? Bodily substance. 

What is figure ? Magnitude enclosed. What is magnitude ? Quantity. 

Wliat is a tree ? A plant. What is a plant ? One kind of organized matter. What is 
matter ? Bodily substance. 

In like manner we could pass from eagle to bird ; from bird to animal ; from animal 
to matter (organized) ; and from that to the same final and general word, Substance. 

660. From this fact, witnessed in common experience, we see that 
(1.) The meanings of words are some more, and some less 

general : 

(2.) The more general words form classes, under which, by 
common consent, we place the meanings which are less 
general. 

Ejs.: '"Flower" is more general than " rose." In the ordinary use of languago 
we speak of roses as in the class of flowers. 

Such are the principles of formation for the significations of words. 
The same principles are shown by the process of definition. 

661. A more general term in any class is called an upper class- 
WORD ; a less general term included under it, is called a lower class- 
word, f 

Ex.: " Bird" is the upper class-word ; " Eagle " the lower. 

* Plato. 

f These terms are more convenient than genus and species. 



300 ENGLISH GBAMMAfi. 



Sec. 3. — Sources of Formation. 



662. The more general term in any class is the source for 
the significations of less general terms included under it. 

The most general term in any class is the source for the 
significations of all the words of that class. 

Hence, the rule ; upper class-words are sources of signifi- 
cation to LOWER CLASS-WORDS. 

Proof of this is found in the fact that men, in explanations and defini- 
tions, refer their words to the classes to which, by common consent, 
they belong. By nature, they explain a particular by a general term,. and 
one less general, by one more general; as, oak by tree; tree by plant; 
square by plane figure ; figure by magnitude ; magnitude by quantity ; a 
man by his class. 

Strict and scientific definitions merely present with accuracy a process 
which all men perform by their nature more or less accurately, and 
without which they could not use language as they now do. It is the 
process of explaining by a class. (2 and note; 11, 3.) 

As for letters written, the source is in sounds spoken, and for sounds, 
the breath ; as for derived and compound words, the source is in primi- 
tives; so, 

For the significations of words, their sources are in the 
meanings which are most general. 

663. It is found by observation that the significations of words, as 
given in dictionaries, are reducible to a definite and small number of 
these most general classes. 

They are named in the next section. 

Sec. 4.— Words under Categories. 

664. Categories arc the most general heads to which the 
meanings of the words of a language can be reduced, and by 
which those words can receive logical definition. 

The term Category is from a Greek word whose primitive sense is 
to collect together, (or more strictly, by the force of cata,) to collect under- 
neath. A Category collects under it many subordinate meanings and 
words. 

665. The Categories are, in number, ten. They are Sub- 
stance, Quantity, Relation, Quality, Place, Time, Posi- 
tion, Possession, Action, Passion. 



categories: practice: synonyms. 301 

Under the first head, will belong Nouns expressing things and per- 
sons. Man, animal, plant, stone, belong to Substance. 
The other nine are attributes. 

Exercise in Categorical Parsing. 

666. Take sentences as for Syntactical Parsing. Refer each word, 
not as before to a class which shows its use in a sentence, but to its 
head of meaning, (i. e. its Category,) apart from the sentence. 

Ex. : "God made man upright." The first word belongs to Substance, 
the second to Action, the third to Substance, the fourth to Quality. 

Such an exercise will draw a line of distinction between two subjects, 
the confounding of which has made the confusion complained of in 
Grammar, viz., the sense of words apart from a sentence, and the offices 
of words in a sentence. 

To assist the process, observe that the parts of speech will aid in 
determining the Category of a word. Yerbs will belong to Action or 
Passion ; nouns of persons and things, to Substance ; many adjectives 
and adverbs, to Quality; some adverbs, to Time and Place. (110, 273.) 

This practice promotes one part of the thirteenth attainment. 

The word class will be frequently used for Category. 

Sec. 5. — Subdivisions op Words under Categories. 

66 T. Each Category is divided and subdivided into parts less and less 
general, so as to form heads to which words of similar meaning may be 
referred. 

The process is like that of classification. 

Thus, by proper differenees, Quantity may be divided into multitude 
and magnitude; magnitude into length, breadth and volume. 

668. There may be different modes of dividing the same Category, as 
there may be different methods for classifying the books of a library. 
All that is necessary is, that there be some accepted division, furnishing 
heads by which definitions can be made, and to which synonymous 
words can be referred. 

669. Words of kindred meaning with each head of the classification 
are then placed under it, forming groups of synonyms. 

e. g. : Under the head of Length will stand ; as Nouns, longitude, 
elongation, prolongation, production, stretching, tensure, with many more; 
as Yerbs, to be long, to lengthen, to extend, elongate, protract, with others ; 
as Adjectives, long, outstretched, lengthened, produced, etc. ; as Adverbs, 
lengthioise, longitudinally, endlong, fore and aft, etc. All these come under 
tho general meaning of Length. 



302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

670. Synonyms are words belonging to the same Category and Head- 
word, whose common meaning is the same. 
Examples : The words just given. 

6*71. A collection of synonyms forms a group. In this group, one is 
selected to represent the rest as a Head- word to the class. Thus, in the 
example, Length is a head-word representing all the synonyms, as longi- 
tude, elongation, and the others, with their derived Verbs, Adjectives, 
and Adverbs. 

672. When words are arranged under these heads it is found that 
some categories contain words of opposed meaning, while others do not. 

673. Words of opposed meaning are called Opposites. They exist in 
pairs. Both terms in the pair belong to the same Category. 

Opposites, or words of opposed meaning, in one class, are of four 
kinds; Contraries, Contradictories, Privatives, Relatives. 

674. Contraries are Opposites* whose meanings are contrasted. 

Ex. : Love and Aversion, Pleasure and pain, are contrary words in the 
category of Passion; Attraction and Repulsion, in that of Action; 
Good and Evil, in that of Quality. f 

Of Contraries, one is Positive, one Negative. 

Action, Passion, Quality, are among the Categories that furnish 
Contraries. Substance does not. (273.) 

675. Contradictories, are Opposites whose meanings are made con- 
tradictory, by one of the pair attaching a negative particle to the other ; as, 

Possible, iMpossible ; careful, careLESS; righteous, UN righteous ; execution, 
N OS execution ; chromatic, Achromatic. 

The negative particle may be a Prefix or Suffix. It may be from the 
Gothic or Classic family. It may even stand separately, as possible, not 
possible. 

Of the pair one is Assertive ; one, Contradictory; 

676. Relatives are Opposites whose meanings aro related, so that 
one implies the existence of the other ; as, 

Husband, Wife; Master, Servant; Father, Child. 

If one be a wife, she has a husband. If a man be a servant, he has 
a master. 

The two words of the pair are correlatives; that where the relation 
begins, relative ; that where it ends, co-relative. 

The words father and child are together correlatives ; the first, the 
relative; the second, the co-relative. 

* Words of opposed meaning in the same ctass. 

f Contraries, as may be seen, are words of the same class whose differences (677) 
are the greatest which are possible under that class. 



OPPOSITES AND GRADATIONS. 303 

Relatives may include more than a pair, though generally they may 
be reduced to two. Thus, the word middle implies beginning and end. 
Tet these three terms may be reduced to two, viz., mean for the first, 
and extremes for the other two. 

Relatives are often made by the terminations ive and ble; as, corrupt- 
ive, corruptive. 

671. Privatives are Opposites whose meanings express, the one, pri* 
vation, the other, correspondent possession ; as, 

Hearing, Deafness; Sight, Blindness) Speech, Dumbness; Sensibility, 
Numbness. 

Of the terms, one is Privative, one Possessive. 

Sight and Blindness are opposed as Privatives ; Seeing and Sightless, aa 
Contradictories ; Vision and Visible, as Relatives. 

Such are opposed meanings. 

678. Some Categories contain words that express degree, while others 
do not. (273.) 

"Words expressing degree are called Gradations, (or Grade-Words.) 

Gradations are words of the same class or category, expressing more 
or less, most or least. They resemble the degrees of comparison. (269- 
271.) 

They are found under Quality, Action", Passion. 

Ex.: Warm, hot; cool, cold; walk, run; dislike, detest; pain, agony; 
pleasure, rapture. 

Such, are graduated meanings. 

679. There are words, each of which has more than one meaning. 
They are called equivocal, or ambiguous* 

If an equivocal word do not necessarily mislead the mind in statement 
or reasoning, it may be called a manifold ; and if it do, an indefinite. 

Manifolds and indefinites are thus divisions of equivocals. 

An equivocal word is one of various meanings, which belong to dif- 
ferent Categories, or to different heads in the same category. Its mean- 
ings are dispersed through various places in the classification. 

In the strict use of language, as in reasoning, each of those meanings 
is to be referred to its class, and to its number and place in the class. 
It is then to be treated as if represented by a separate word. This is 
specially needed with indefinites. 

Thus the word clear has more than twelve meanings. Among them 

* The term equivocal is to be preferred to ambiguous. Equivocal is more strictly- 
applied to the single word, than to the whole expression, including the sentence. It 
can be used, also, as a substantive, and in that use take the plural. It admits corres- 
pondent derivatives. The term, ambiguous, has not these advantages. 



304 ENGLISH GBAMM-Ai. 

are (1) transparent; (2) empty; (3) simple, (as opposed to double and 
multiple.) The first meaning belongs to one head under Quality ; the 
second to Space ; the third to Quantity. 

680. When the words of a language are so classified, the assistance 
afforded against the usual faults in reasoning, writing, and speaking, is 
immense. 

That which so classifies them is a Dictionary of Categories.* 

Sec. 6.— Dictionaries Classifying by Significations. 

681. A dictionary which is alphabetical, arranges words by their initial 
letters ; terminaiional, by their terminating letters ; etymological, by their 
Roots, or Stems. 

A Dictionary of Categories is one which arranges words 
according to their significations. 

" Koget's Thesaurus of English "Words and Phrases," though defec- 
tive in its present arrangement, is an example of such a word-book, 
Bishop Wilkins' "Essay," London, 1688, has a better arrangement, but 
an insufficient collection of words. 

682. The following explanations suppose such a dictionary referred 
to in each step of the explanation. 

It has three parts. 

1. The first part is the system of classification under the Categories. 

In this authors vary, as men would do in any classification or 
arrangement. 

The classification is made by the process seen under definitions, viz., 
by differences and names. (6*79.) 

If this part be well made, it presents ample materials for exercises in 
definitions. (683.) 

The names of the classification form Head- Words in the form of Nouns, 
under which, in the second part, Synonyms are to be grouped. 

* Such an one should be formed for every language in Europe. If each were makle 
alter the same plan, telegraphic messages could be sent from one country to another 
without obstruction from difference of language. The numbers attached to each head 
would represent the same meaning everywhere. 



categories: dictionary of: its parts. 305 



Ex. : Under the head of Quantity. 



K 1 


D. 1 


A 7 *. 3 


Opposite N* 


QUANTITY, 


■J Comparative, 


\ Greatness, 


Smallness. 




} Concrete, 


| Whole, 


Part. 


RELATION, 


«] General, 


•J Agreement, 


Disagreement 


TIME, 


•J Recurrent, 


< Frequency, 


Infrequency. 


SPACE, 


\ Linear, 


\ Length, 


Shortness. 



These heads have, in the dictionary, the numbers which are used for 
groups of Synonymous Words, in the second part. 

2. The second part is the collection (under each Head- Word given by 
the first part) of Synonymous Words, of the four material parts of 
speech, (27,) — Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs. 

The Head-Word, drawn from the first part, is placed in capitals among 
the Nouns. All the Synonymous Nouns, (or substantive forms,) given 
by the language, are placed by that Head- Word. 

Then follow the correspondent derivatives, answering to these Nouns; 
which are Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, represented by V., Adj., Adv. 
Phrases equivalent to any of these parts of speech are added. The 
whole group receives its proper number. 

For an example, we may take from the Head- Words, just given, Agree- 
ment, Disagreement, (which are two contradictories by the negative par- 
ticle,) under the category, Relation. We then read: 

Agreement, accord, correspondence, harmony, suitableness, fitness, assim- 
ilation, etc. 

V. To Agree, accord, correspond, harmonize, suit, Jit, assimilate, etc. 

Adj. Agreeing, accordant, correspondent, harmonious, suitable %i fit % 
assimilated, etc. 

Adv. Agreeably, accordingly, correspondent^, harmoniously, suitably r , 
fitly, etc. 

Phr. Just the thing ; at home, etc. 

Disagreement, discord, variance, opposition, interference, clashing^ 
jarring, etc. 

V. To Disagree, vary, oppose, interfere, clash, jar ; to be discordant, 
repugnant, incompatible, etc. 

Adj. Disagreeing, discordant, at variance, opposed, interfering, clashing, 
jarring, repugnant, incompatible, incongruous. 



306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Adv. Discordantly, incompatibly, repugnantly, incongruously, at vari- 
ance with, etc. 

Phr. Out of keeping, out of tune, etc. 

These are but a part of the synonymous expressions furnished by the 
language under that single head. 

Expressions belonging to the heads of greatness and smallness, will 
be found to fill nearly two pages of the Word-Book. Under whole and 
part, frequency and infrequency, length and shortness, large numbers will 
be found. 

3. The third part is a collection of the words of the language, alpha- 
betically arranged, with references, by numbers, to the categories to 
which they belong. 

In this list, are the equivocal or ambiguous words. The various mean- 
ings of each word, which has more than one, are numbered and referred 
to their respective categories. An example has already been given un- 
der the word clear. 

Such are the parts of a Dictionary of Categories. 

Exercises. 

683. Suitable exercises teach the use of such, a dictionary. 

A recapitulation of the heads, to which words belong, by their mean- 
ings, is convenient for directing exercises. 

684. The meanings of words, as referred to classes, are subordinated, 
opposed, graduated, co-ordinated, dispersed. 

1. Subordinated meanings form class- WORDS, upper and lower. 

e.g. : Peter is a lower class- word to man; and man, to animal. Ani- 
mal is an upper class-word to man and to Peter. 

A Category is the highest among upper class- words. 

2. Opposed meanings form Opposites. 

Opposites are Contraries, Contradictories, Relatives, Privatives. (673.) 

3. Graduated meanings form Gradations, (or Grade-Words.) 

4. Co-ordinated meanings form Synonymous Words. 

5. Dispersed meanings form Equivocal Words. 

The word may be one, and the meanings many ; it is then equivocal. 
The words may be many, with the common meaning one, and are then 
synonymous. 

685. Having the vocabulary to give all the equivalent expressions 
furnished by the language : 

1. Unite two Head- Words in a proposition, making one the subject, 
and one the predicate ; as, " Knowledge is Power. 11 

[a.) Substitute for the subject and predicate, the Synonymous Nouns 



EXPRESSIONS FROM SAME CATEGORY. 307 

of tlie thing hi a series of equivalent propositions; as, Science is 
Strength. Add nouns of the person; as, "a teacher is a strengthened*.' ' 

(b.) Do the same with the Synonymous Verbs, and give the verbs 
various grammatical forms, in voice, tense, mood, number, person, and 
as transitive or intransitive. 

Ex. : " He who instructs, empowers. 11 

(c.) Express the same propositions by adjectives in all their forms, 
verbal, participial, capacitating, and with the degrees of comparison ; as, 
"He who is wise, is mighty ; v "the wiser, the stronger." 

(d.) By suitable verbs, introduce the correspondent adverbs, or 
phrases ; as, " He who learns well, grows well." 

(e.) These are various forms for one proposition. Of these forms many 
will be striking and beautiful. Mark the best. They can be remem* 
bered, and reserved for use. 

II. Now take the Opposites to the subject and predicate, if any exist. 
Unite the negative to the negative. 

(a.) Begin with the nouns ; as, u Ignorance is weakness" Proceed 
with the equivalent nouns, as before. 

(&.) Do the same with the correspondent verbs; (c) with the adjec- 
tives; (d) with the adverbs and phrases; (e) with the best forms ; as, 
"the mind untaught is disabled." 

Yary Opposites among themselves, while the same proposition is pre- 
served; as, in other propositions, by 

Contraries : " There is no light , '==" There is darkness. 19 

Contradictories : "He is careless "=" He is not care/wZ." 

Privatives : "He has no sight "=»" He is blind." 

Relatives: "I am his son "= u He is my father. 11 

III. Unite the positive, as subject, to the negative, as predicate, by 
the particle, not, or an equivalent ; as, " Wisdom is not impotence," 
—Knowledge is Power. 

Proceed, as before, with the four material parts of speech, and the 
best forms. 

IV. Unite the negative, as subject, to the positive as predicate, by a 
negative, and proceed as before. For greater variety, the positions of 
subject and predicate may be changed; as, "there is no force in igno- 
rance, "—Knowledge is Power. 

Vary by different prepositions ; as, by, in, through, out, of, etc. 

V. From the selected and best forms, unite two in contrasted (antitheti- 
cal) expression; as, "Power is bestowed by learning, not by ignorance." 

These exercises promote copiousness in using words. 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The five steps just given, present the five processes in stating a pro- 
position, among which the mind, in writing or speaking, has to select. 
According to the purpose proposed, we select the two positives, or the 
two opposites ; or one positive, as the suV ject ; or one negative, as the 
subject; or we unite both in a sentence whose parts are contrasted. 

686. Other exercises can now follow, in upper and lower class-words, 
and in gradations. 

1. In class-words. 

Having a given subject and predicate, generalize the proposition by 
substituting, for one or both, an upper class- word; particularize, by sub- 
stituting a lower for an upper ; as, 

Gen. : " Great cities refine and corrupt nations." 

Partic. : " Paris refines and corrupts France." 

2. In gradations, or grade-words. 

(a.) Having a subject and predicate, in which one admits of words 
expressing degree, (a) write the grade-words separately. Then unite 
them to the subject or predicate, in such manner, that the strongest shall 
be last ; as, " The day is not only warm, but hot." 

(b.) When both subject and predicate admit grade-words, write, as 
before, the list of each, and then form successive sentences, placing the 
strongest last. Thus the general expression may be " wrongs are crimi- 
nal." We divide wrongs and criminality by degrees. Then, we can 
say, "It is a misdemeanor to put fetters on a citizen of Rome ; a crime, 
to whip him ; an atrocity, to kill him."* 

This exercise, and that under class-words, can be united together. 
The general proposition can be put first, the particular propositions will 
follow in the order of gradations ; as, 

Gen. : " Offences are punishable." 

Partic: "For misdemeanors there are fines; for theft, imprisonment; 
for murder, death." 

Exercises in grade-words give skill in the use of language. They 
prepare, also, for using and understanding the figures of climax and 
gradation ; to be explained in their place. 

68?. In the previous exercises, equivalent words have been found for 
the Subject in its own Category, as well as for the Predicate. 

Words may be drawn from other categories, and either applied to the 

* For illustration, this is modified from the sentence of Cicero, so often quoted : 
i( -Fcicinus est, vincire civem Rmnanum, scelus verberare, prope parricidium necare, 
quid dicam in crucem tollere. 

To bind a Roman citizen is a wrong ; to scourge him, a crime ; to murder him, al- 
most parricide ; what shall I call it, to uplift him on the cross 1 



EXPRESSIONS FROM MANY CATEGORIES. 309 

Subject or Predicate, or put as substitutes for one or tbe other. They 
are then said to be taken heterogeneously. 

(1.) Taking any given subject (as the sea, a cloud, a tree, or any other), 
draw from the different categories all the adjectives and epithets which 
san be applied to that subject. 

Thus, the Sea : restless ; vast, deep, wide, unfathomable ; empurpled, 
blue, dark; hollow-sounding, ever-sounding, enduring, perpetual; unde- 
caying, un wrinkled; vast. 

Note the category from which each epithet is drawn. Thus, in the 
example, the first epithet is from Action ; others are from Quantity, 
Quality, Time, Space. 

Such words are called Epithets. Skill in using epithets is a necessary 
accomplishment for goed writing. By them, words, heterogeneously 
taken, are applied to subjects. 

2. Taking any given subject, as before, find, in the different catego- 
ries, resemblances for it. Then write the comparison with some reason ; as» 

''Knowledge is like Light: it dispels darkness." 

Comparisons are heterogeneously taken and applied to subjects. 

3. Remove the mark of comparison in the word like, and use the same 
propositions as before, or form new ones ; as " Knowledge is Light." 

"Words so used are called metaphors, and will be explained in their 
place. 

Metaphors are heterogeneously taken, and used as substitutes for sub- 
jects or predicates. 

By the exercises thus far indicated, fluency and facility in the com- 
mand of language are promoted. 

688. Passing now to Ambiguous "Words in the third part of the vocab- 
ulary, and taking any word of several meanings : 

(1.) Write the different meanings in a list, and number them. (2.) Re- 
for each to its Head- Word in its category and division. Then against 
each meaning write out (or give orally,) the Synonyms for it, with their 
opposites, if they exist ; as, 

Spirit. — 1. Immateriality; 2. Courage; 3. Meaning. 
Syn. 1. Immateriality; incorporeal, etc. 
Oppos. Matter, body, substance, eta 

2. Courage, bravery, daring, valor, gallantry, etc. 
Oppos. Cowardice, timidity, etc. 

3. Meaning, sense, signification, import, etc. 
Exemplify in sentences these different meanings. 

Such use of Ambiguous Words teaches exactness in the use of lan- 
guage. 



BIO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

It tends to prevent the common fault of using the same word in dif- 
ferent senses in the same writing or discussion. 

To avoid this fault, discriminate the different meanings of a word : re- 
fer each meaning to its place in a class; adhere to one meaning, as if it 
had a separate word for its expression. 

All these exercises conduce to the thirteenth attainment. 

689. The uses of the three parts of a Dictionary of Categories can be 
seen by these exercises. 

The first part (if rightly made,) directs to classifications and definitions 
of the subjects of speech, and thus teaches to use language orderly. 

The third, to discriminate among the meanings of Ambiguous Words, 
and thus teaches to use language exactly. 

The second, to a perception of the various forms of expression for the 
same idea, and thus teaches to use language variously and copiously. 

Sec. 7. — Synonymy. 

690. In any simple sentence, 

Synonymous Words can be substituted for a subject ; as Ocean, sea. 
Epithets can be applied to a subject ; as, the blue Ocean. The essential 
meaning of the Subject is not changed by them. The same is true of the 
Predicate. 

691. Synonymous words, as a general class, are those which havo a 
similar meaning. Those which are synonymous with the Subject or Pre- 
dicate of a proposition, may be used as substitutes for their equivalents 
without changing the fundamental sense of the proposition. 

692. Synonymous words are divided into Synonyms and Synonymals. 
963. Synonyms are words of one common meaning (Synonymous 

words), belonging to the same Category and Head- Words. 

694. Synonymals are synonymous words belonging to different Cate- 
gories, or different Head- Words in the same Category, and adopting, by 
transfer, the common meaning of a group of Synonyms. An example is 
the Metaphor. If we call a man, sl/ox; the sea, the earth's eye, we trans- 
fer its meaning from one class of subjects to another. 

The word, Metaphor, expresses this fact of transfer. 

695. The Synonymous words and epithets which can be used with any 
one subject, are kindred with that subject. 

They are the materials of expression, on which the mind turns in 
speaking of a subject, and from which it makes selection. 

696. Kindred words are classified for the use of the writef or speaker, 
according to their effect on the mind. 

They are divided into the usual and unusual. 



words: definition. 



311 



697. The Usual are terms commonly employed for any given subject; 
the Unusual are terms not commonly employed for the same subject ; as, 
for the Head- Word, Power, strength and might, are usual ; potentiality 
and potency are unusual Synonyms. 

With the usual words we are familiar, and they produce no other ef- 
fect than to make the subject understood ; with the unusual, we are not 
familiar, and hence they produce other effects on the understanding, 
imagination or feelings. 

698. Usual words are divided according to their source, their form, 
their sound, their shade of meaning. 

1. Their sources are in different families of the languages. The prin- 
cipal sources for English words are in the Gothic (through the Saxon), 
and in the Greco-Latin family. Words from the Saxon may be consid- 
ered as native ; those from other sources, when they have become usual, 
as foreign words adopted and naturalized. 

Thus, for example, with the Head- Word, Light, are the Synonyms 
from the Gothic, through the Saxon ; as, brightness, sheen, glow, gleam, 
with many others. 

From the Latin, are splendor, radiance, lustre, effulgence, with a long 
list, to be seen in the vocabulary. Some are Grade- Words, as express- 
ing a greater or less degree of light. 

The contrary Head- Word is Darkness. It has these among many 
other Synonyms : From the Saxon, gloom, shade, dimness ; and, from the 
Latin, obscurity. 

It is thus seen that Synonyms, grouped around one Head- Word, may 
come from different sources. 

2. As to their form, Synonyms are Nouns, Yerbs, Adjectives, or Ad- 
verbs. It is convenient to regard the Noun as primary. 

Accordingly, from every Noun among the Synonyms, can be formed 
the correspondent Verb, Adjective, and Adverb, with the Noun of the 
Person, and the second Noun of the Thing. 

Positive. 

Adj. Adv. 

Light. 

Lightsome, Lightsomely. 

Bright, Brightly. 

Kadiant> Badiantly. 

Contrary. 

Dark, Darkly. 

The correspondent derivatives from one Stem Word are called Paro- 
nyms. 



Light, 


V. 

Enlighten, 


Brightness, 
Kadiance, 


Brighten, 
Irradiate, 


Darkness, 


Darken, 



312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It will be observed, that the parts of speech selected often determines 
the force of a word. 

Nouns are preferred, by the most accomplished writers, in cases 
where persons of inferior skill would employ the correspondent Verb, 
Adjective, or Adverb. 

For example, if we should say, " They make a country solitary, and 
then say, it is peaceful" we should employ two Adjectives. 

Let us now substitute the correspondent nouns, and mark the increase 
of force : 

" They make a solitude, and call it peace." 

This is the form in which Tacitus left the sentence in his History.* 
(3.) As to their sound, some words, in a group of Synonyms, have a 
different effect on the ear, from others. 

This effect depends on their length, or their letters. 
If two words are eaually expressive of an idea, the shorter is to bo 
preferred to the longer, unless there will be repetition. Thus, in choos- 
ing between bright, and resplendent, the former is to be preferred, if, in 
other respects, equally eligible. 

In the letters of Synonymous Words, we consider Vowels and Conso* 
nants, 

(a.) Words, with long vowels, are suitable to express great objects, 
actions, and emotions. Long time, wide space, deep feelings, assimilate 
with long vowel sounds ; as, 

"Nine times the space that measures day and night." 

" How the Heavens and Earth 

Rose out of Chaos." 
"All in a moment, through the gloom were seen 
Ten thousand banners rise into the air, 
With orient colors waving." 

" Thus, with the year, 
Seasons return ; but not to me return 
Day, or the sweet approach of even" 

The orator selects long vowels instinctively, as well as the poet : 

"Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of Liberty." 
(&.) Short vowel sounds assimilate with the contrary ideas and feel- 
ings; as, 

" Thronging helms 
Appeared, and serried shields, in thick arrray, 
Of depth immeasurable." 

* Tacitus was trained to write well by such exercises as these. 



SYNONYMS SELECTED FOR SOUND. 313 

Short vowel sounds are here used to express what is close and 
crowded. 

(c.) The consonants depend, for their effect, on the softness or st?*ength 
of the sounds. There is a medium between them. 

The softest sounds are by the Liquids and Semi-Vowels (as 1, r, w, y,) ; 
the strongest, by the concludents (as k, p, t, ch, g, j,); the medial, by tho 
continuants and nasals (as v, z, ng, m,) or by the combining the soft and 
strong. The closer the contact (541,) the stronger the sound; the less, 
the softer. 

1. Examples of soft consonants (usually with long vowels) : * 

4 'And where the river of bliss, through midst of Ileav'n 
Molls der Ely sian flowers her amber stream" 

"To confirm his words, out flew 
Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs 
Of mighty cherubim. The sudden Naze 
Far round illumined Hell." 

"On golden hinges turning." 

L, r, m, n, and the sound of z, in, rolls, o 1 er, Elysian, flowers^ millions, 
blaze, illumined, form soft sounds. 

2. Examples of strong consonants: 

" Fierce with grasped arms, 

Clashed on their sounding shields, the din of war." 
" With charge to keep 
Those gates for ever shut" 
" Over head, the dismal hiss, 
Of fiery darts, in flaming volleys flew. 
And, flying, vaulted either host with fire. 
So, under fiery cope, together rushed 
Both battles main, with ruinous assault" 

"On the hinges grate 

Harsh thunder." 
B, «p, shd, t, ts, st, It, p, form strong sounds in fierce, grasped, clashed, 
gates, shut, hiss, darts, vault, host, cope, rushed, assault. 

3. Example of medial consonants, and of middle sounds, by intermixture: 

"With these that never fade, the spirits elect 
Bind their resplendent locks, inwreathed with beams, 
Now in loose garlands, thick thrown off, the bright 
Pavement, that like a sea of jasper shone, 
Impurpled with celestial roses, smiled." 



311 ENGLISH OBA M M A R . 

The words, inwwathed, beams, garlands, smiled, end with the sounds, 
d, mz, dz ; the word, impurpled, ends in its three syllables with m, r, Id. 

The words, spirits, resplendent, locks, jasper, celestial, have the liquids 
1, and r, intermingled with those of sp, t, k, s, st. 

Obs. Some words imitate sounds ; as hiss, buzz, crack. 

(4.) As to their shade of meaning, while Synonymous "Words agree in 
one general meaning, each may express some shade of that meaning. 

Thus to decide, and to resolve, may often be used one for another, where 
only the general meaning common to them is intended to be expressed. 

But there is a distinction in their meaning which we must regard 
when great precision is demanded. 

To decide, is more especially an act of the judgment; to resolve, is an 
act of the will. 

699. From Synonyms, classified according to source, form sound and 
sense ; the selection must be made for adaptation to the meaning to be 
conveyed, and the purpose intended. 

It belongs to rhetoric to give the rules for this adaptation. For the 
present, sufficient distinctions are those between compositions in poetry 
and in prose; between popular and scientific statement; between a 
composition directed to the understanding, and one to the imagination, 
or one to the feelings. 

700. Unusual words are divided into five classes : Aliens, Coins, Va- 
riations, Epithets, Metaphors* 

1. Aliens, or foreign words, are the unusual Synonyms found under 
the same Head : Word, and drawn from some foreign language. Ex. — 
Vitiosity, for Badness. 

2. Coins, are words coined. They are mostly compounds. They are 
introduced through poetry or the sciences. Ex. — Oalc-leviathan, for, ship. 

3. Variations, are words preserving their fundamental letters, but in- 
creasing, reducing, or, altering the others; as, " thorough the fog," for 
through the fog ; 'gan, for began ; tho\ for though ; adown, for down. 

4. Epithets, are words kindred to a subject applied to it from other 
categories, or heads, than its own. They usually appear in the form of 
Adjectives, taken from the class of qualities and applied to substances; 
as the swift-footed Achilles ; the hollow -sounding sea. 

5. Metaphors are Synonymals, which may be substituted for a subject 
from other Categories or heads than its own. They are borrowed words. 
Ex. — Call Achilles a lion; Herod, a fox; Nero, a tiger; Pitt, a pilot; 
Napoleon, an eagle; "Washington, the country's father; the Constitution, 
a rock; Law, an atmosphere; Knowledge, light; Eeason, a candle; 

* Arist. : Poetics and Rhetoric. 



SYNONYMS BY SENSE: METAPHORS. 315 

Athens, the eye of Greece ; Anger, a storm ; Conquerors, vultures. In 
such cases, the words are borrowed, transferred, and may be substituted ; 
as, "Go ye, and tell Uerod"=" Go ye, and tell that fox." 

Metaphors are of four kinds: 1. From one particular meaning to an- 
other. 2. From a particular to a general. 3. From a general to a par- 
ticular. 4. From analogy.* 

Observe that the borrowed word is supposed to be in one class or 
head, and the word for which it is substituted in another. 

(a.) They are from a particular to a particular, when the borrowed 
word is equally special in its own class with that (in its class) for which 
it is substituted. Ex. — " Hannibal is a Numidian lion." Hannibal is 
particular in the class of conquerors ; and the wild beast named is par- 
ticular in the class of lions. 

(b.) They are from a particular to a general when the borrowed word 
is more general in its own class, than is that (in its class) for which it is 
substituted ; and (c.) from a general to a particular, when the fact is re- 
versed. Ex. — Substitute wild beast, for " Numidian lion," in the last exam- 
ple, and the impression is generalized. Substitute lion, and it is less gene- 
ral. 

(d.) Metaphors by analogy are formed by four terms — two from one 
class, and two from another, with a similar relation between the first 
two, and the last two. Usually, each pair will present the parts of some 
division in the class or category. 

Ex. — Under the term, life, are two parts ; youth, age ; under that of 
day, dawn, sunset There are, by the parts, four terms: youth, age } 
dawn, sunset The relations in the pairs are similar. They are propor- 
tional, youth being to age, as dawn to sunset. We may substitute one 
for another, and call, 

Youth, the dawn of life; Dawn, the youth of the day. Age, the sun* 
set of life ; Sunset, the old age of the day. 

For the term, Day, may be substituted seasons, and the first term, 
with its two parts, be left as before. The four terms are these : 

Youth : Age : : Spring : Winter. 

The following metaphors then result: 

Youth, the spring-time of life ; Spring, the youth of the year. Age, 
the winter of life; Winter, the old age of the year. 

Of these kinds of metaphors, the last has a peculiar value for tho 
writer and speaker. f 

Metaphors should be multiplied in exercises. From the mass, selec- 
tions of the best, for use, should be made with taste and judgment. 

* Arist. : Poetics, Chap. XXI. f Arist. 



U 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

701. From the last kind of metaphors, those from analogy, are formed 
not only Nouns, but Verbs. Ex. — The sun being to his rays, as the 
sower to the seed, we may say, " The sun solved the earth with rays."* 
We may say, " He that built all things is God," the Architect being to 
the building as the Creator to the world. Adjectives are also formed ; 
as "the encamped energies of the orator." 

702. From the last kind of metaphors, also, are formed the most beau- 
tiful negative epithets employed by the poet and orator. Ex. — A brave 
nation=an unweaponed army: Heaven==a house not made with hands; 
A Flute=*a stringless harp ; Dobates^-Woocfes battles ; War^unspoken 
negotiation ; Treaties— fearZess trophies. 

These epithets are drawn from the four terms of some analogy, by 
considering what term belongs to one pair and not to the other, and then 
using that term as an epithet negatively with the other. Thus, a debate 
is to the vote, as a battle to the victory. Blood belongs to the third and 
fourth terms, but not to the first and second. The term, bloodless, is thus 
suggested for debates, which may be called bloodless battles. 

703. Unusual words are classified for use and selection, as are those 
which are usual ; according to their source, form, sound, shade of mean- 
ing. 

704. By use and familiarity, metaphors, epithets, and all of the un- 
usual kind may become usual. 

705. When writing or speaking on any one subject, synonyms, syno- 
nymals, and epithets, the usual and the unusual, form the verbal mate- 
rials, which may be used in treating of that subject, whether by substi- 
tution, as with the metaphor, or by application, as with the epithet. 
These materials are kindred (695) with that subject.f For command of 
them, written exercises are required. 

706. (1.) Exercises on Words Akin to a Given Subject. 

1. A subject, one of the Head- words in the Dictionary of Categories, 
is to be selected and given for exercise ; as, Pleasure. 

2. Arrange the words given in the vocabulary as synonymous with 
pleasure, in four columns, with subdivisions, according to (1.) their 
source ; (2.) their form; (3.) their sound; (4.) their shades of meaning.^ 

* Et lumine consent arva. — Lucretius. 

Et jam prima novo spargebat lumine terras. — Virgil. 
Now, Morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime 
Advancing, sowed the earth with orient pearl. — Milton, 

f They may be called, the Kin- Words of that subject. 

% When the words arc too numerous, all should not be written, 



PRACTICE IN SELECTION OF WORDS. 317 

Thus, under source, there will be together, the words from the Saxon, 
and, in like manner, those from the Latin, those from the Greek, or other 
families, each distinguished by the common abbreviations. 

3. Make metaphors of the four kinds named, especially those from 
analogy, and both as Nouns and Yerbs (700). Mark those which you 
deem the best. 

4. Form epithets which can be applied to Pleasure. Mark those 
deemed the best. 

5. Form the other kinds of unusual words belonging to that subject. 

6. Classify the unusual words in the same four columns, according to 
source, form, sound, shade of meaning. 

(2.) For Another and Very Useful Exercise : 

Take any good English author in prose or poetry, and, reading sen- 
tence after sentence, classify his words under the same heads. 
These exercises prepare for the next attainment. 

Sec. 8. — Selection. 

101. "Words are like the colors used in painting: both are materials 
for expression. For expression, there must be selection. 

The artist must possess his materials before he can use them. Ho 
then selects from them, and, in selection, combines them, for the repre- 
sentation, and the effects, which he proposes. 

In like manner, the writer or speaker must be in possession of the 
words which he can employ, before lie can select and combine, for hia 
representation and effects, those which he does employ. 

Hence, in the study of language, those exercises are first in order, 
which give possession of all forms of expression for one idea. Then 
must follow principles and exercises, which teach selection and combina- 
tion. 

TO 8. By selection, the expressions used on any subject, or occasion, 
must be adapted to that subject or occasion. He must add this use to 
the list already given (689.) It is necessary to use language suitably 
and judiciously. 

The principles, however, belong to Rhetoric (699) ; the exercises to 
Grammar. 

In the place of principles, reliance must be had on natural good sense, 
judgment, and taste. 



318 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Accordingly, 

T09. The fourteenth attainment in language is ability to select words 
suitably. 

Exercise. 

Taking the materials given by the last exercise, form sentences which 
include the words, and classify them (699) as suitable (I..) to poetry, or 
prose; (2.) as popular, or scientific; (3.) as plain for the understanding, 
or obscure ; (4.) as imaginative, or impassioned. 

Obs. The constant study of good English writers, as models for style, 
is necessary, in order to guide the selection. Translations from a foreign 
language also give assistance. 



terminations: dictionary of: use. 319 



CHAPTER VII. 

TERMINATIONS. 

T10. The terminations of words belong to their form. 

The subject is placed here, and not under Word-Building, because it prepares direct- 
ly for the next part of Grammar, which gives directions for the correct representation 
of words, both in spelling them, when we write, and pronouncing them, when we 



711. "Words arranged by terminations, are classified accord- 
ing to their final letters. 

712. The use of such an arrangement is, that when words are so clas- 
sified, they reveal the analogies of the language, and show to inspection 
the laws of spelling, accent, and pronunciation, as these are fixed by 
common usage and consent. For all persons, it is valuable ; for the ma- 
ture learner, indispensable. 

By analogy, we mean similar forms, under similar circumstances. 

TL3. "Words so arranged, form a Termination al Dictionary.* It has 
been misnamed a Rhyming Dictionary, since it incidentally presents 
rhymes. 

714. Two divisions belong to words arranged by terminations : (1.) that 
of words that do not terminate in a Suffix; (2.) that of words that do 
terminate in a Suffix. 

115. The first division, or words not ending in a Suffix, includes 
Stem-Words, Branch- Words, and Compounds, the final syllable or sylla- 
bles containing some Stem- Word : 

For an example,, we may take words ending in the letter E ; as, 



Eve, 


Believe, 


Retrieve, 


Sleeve, 


Disbelieve, 


Sieve, 


Reeve, 


Misbelieve, 


League, 


Achieve, 


Relieve, 


Colleague. 


Thieve, 


Aggrieve, 




Lieve, 


Reprieve, 





* In looking out words in a Terminational Dictionary, we spell from the last ietter 
backward, while in the Alphabetical, we do so from the first letter forward. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Under, E, wo may take 0,N,E ; N",C,E ; 


U 5 C,E; E,I,Y,E; as, 


ONE 


ONE 


EIVE 


3 2 1 


3 2 1 




Lone, 


Mill-stone, 


Deceive, 


Alone, 


Brim-stone, 


Undeceive, 


Depone, 


Corner-stone 


, Receive, 


Postpone, 


Whetstone, 


Conceive, 


Crone, 


Key-stone. 


Preconceive, 


Drone, 




Perceive. 


Throne, 


NOE 




Dethrone, 


Ounce, 


UCE 


Enthrone, 


Bounce, 


Traduce, 


Unthrone, 


Flounce, 


Abduce, 


Prone, 


Denounce, 


Obduee, 


Tone, 


Renounce, 


Subduce, 


Atone, 


Announce, 


Educe, 


Intone, 


Pronounce, 


Deduce 


Stone, 


Pounce, 


Reduce, 


Load-stone, 


Prounce, 


Seduce, 


Free-stone, 


Trounce, 


Induce, 


Grindle-stone, 


Scarce, 


Superinduce^ 


Mile-stone, 


Farce, 


Conduce, 


Grave-stone, 


Fierce, 


Produce. 


Touch-stone, 


Pierce, 




Hail-stone, 


Empierco, 





Transpierce. 
Or, we may consider words ending in Y; as, 

Apathy, Homoeopathy, 

Antipathy, Hydropathy, 

Sympathy, Allopathy, 

Idiopathy, 

In the list, we see Stem- Words, as, Lone; Branch- Words, as Dethrone; 
Compounds, as, Hail-stone. The terminations are all Stem- Words. 

*?16. The second division, or words ending in a Suffix, includes the 
Correspondent Derivatives* (derived Yerbs, Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs), 
the final syllable, or syllables, not presenting a Stem- Word, but a gram- 
matical Suffix. Words with a JDesrciptive Suffix may be included. 

For an example, we may take terminations of the second Noun of the 
Thing, ending in, ft/, and formed from the Adjective ending in, lie ; Yerbs 

* Paronyms. 



GROUPING BY TERMINATIONS. 321 

in efy, and ify; The law of accent is seen by inspection, as the eye 
traverses the list : 



Probability, 


Calefy, 


Improbability, 


Tumefy, 


Placability, 


Barefy, 


Implacability, 


Pacify, 


Peccability, 


Specify, 


Impeccability, 


Dulcify, 


Applicability, 


Crucify, 


Commimicabflity, 


Edify, 


Incommunicability, 


Modify, 


Malleability, 


Deify, 


Affability. 


Qualify.* 



In the list, the terminations are seen to be Suffixes. 

*?17. The fifteenth attainment in language consists in ability, to group to* 
gether readily in the mind, the words of like terminations, and thus to per- 
ceive those analogies of the language which direct usage, especially in spell" 
ing and pronunciation. 

The deficiency to be obviated is, dependence on practice and usage in 
single words, for spelling and accent, without any use of principles 
which apply to whole masses of words of like formation. 

Directions. — Group together (1st) Compounds which have the same 
last word ; (2d ) Derivatives with the same Suffix. "Write them vertically, 
and mark over them the place of the accent, and under them, by a line, 
the letters which are the same in the spelling. Then state, by writing, 
or orally, the place of the accent, counting the syllable, reversely, from 
the end ; and also, the common letters used in the spelling. 

Thus, in the examples, all words ending in, pathy, which are strictly 
Compounds, have the accent on the previous syllable, or third from the 
last ; those ending in, bUity, have the accent on that syllable which is 
derived from the correspondent Adjective, or the third from the last. 

This is commonly called the ante-penultimate. 

In the spelling, the Verbs derived from Capio, with a prefix, are 
spelled with the letters, e, i, v, e, the Labial, p, being changed for the La- 
bial, v, and the vowel a, in cap, for ei ; that is, a chest vowel for the 
Head vowel sound of ee, representod by the letters, ei. 

For an exercise ki composition by dictation, the teacher selects one or 
more Compounds ; Derivatives with Suffixes ; or Stem- Words. Having the 

* Analogy would give Quantify. 



322 ENGLISH OBAMM A B . 

Termmational Dictionary, the pupils write out the words of like endings, 
with remarks. In this, as in all exercises, the book can be disused, 
when the memory is furnished. 

He excels who gives the list correctly, and states from it most clearly 
and fully the usage observed in the spelling and accentuation. 

One result of this attainment will be found in the next division of 
Grammar, where we consider the pronunciation and spelling of English 
words. Another result is, that it gives command of some figures ; as, 
Homoioptoton, and Homoioteleuton, which form similar endings in the 
members of sentences, 

*I18. Here terminates the second division of Grammar, on the Forma- 
tion of the Word. The next treats of the Representation of Words. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



DIVISION III, 



ORTHONOMY. 



DIVISION III. 

ORTHONOMY. 

transition. 

719. The first and second divisions of Grammar, have treated of Construction : 
Syntax, of the construction of the sentence ; Etymology, of the construction of the 
■word. 

The construction of both, is from their sources. These sources have been indi- 
cated. It has been shown that, 

. The source for the construction of the simple sentence, is in assertion : the source 
for the assertion, is in the verb. (29, 30.) 

In the word, are its form, and its signification. Form includes syllables, and let- 
ters. It has been shown that, 
The source of letters is in sounds, and of sounds in the breath. (472, 478.) 
The source of the syllables of a word, is in primitive words. (468.) 
The source of signification is in general terms, called Categories. (4C9.) 

720. As Grammar deals with the word and sentence ,*showing how each is to bo 
constructed and expressed, the next subject after Construction, is that of Eepresen- 
tation. By representation is meant some approved form of expression, adapting the 
word or sentence for reception in the mind. 

Thus, if we should represent the sounds in the word righteous, by this form, 
riteyus, it would not be adapted to usage, nor would it tell the Etymology. It 
would not be received as correct. If we attempted to record the Etymology by 
spelling it recht-ous, we should not represent the sound, and also we should deviate 
from usage. The form, righteous, has been adopted by common consent, as indica- 
ting both the derivation and the sound. In that form, the word is adapted, and fitted 
for communication. 

So it is in the sentence. Should a sentence be so spoken, or so written, that its 
words could not be distinguished from one another, the form of expression would 
not be adapted for communication ; as 

Wordsnotdistinguishedarenotunderstood. 

721. The essential purpose of language is ready reception of the thought of one 
person in the mind of another. This is by the senses. The senses principally* em- 
ployed, are those of sight and hearing, whose organs are the eye and ear. Language 
in forms intended for the first is written, and for the second, spoken. When the 

* Mutes, in the dark, employ touch. A word or sentence may be communicated 
by a succession of odors or tastes. 



326 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

forms of written and spoken language are adapted to this purpose, and are consonant 
with usage, they are said to be correct. 

722. Accordingly, the next two divisions of Grammar, treat of the forms of ex- 
pression for the word and sentence, which are satisfactory to the ears and eyes of 
men, and through both to the mind. 

As Construction was drawn from sources, so is Representation from effects, as well 
as from sources. By effects are meant, impressions on the mind. 

723. Method. The representation of the word must precede that of the sentence, 
as a necessary preparation for it. It must follow Etymology, since its rules are 
drawn from the construction of the word. 

Hence the next subject is the correct form of expression for words. 



ORTHONOMY. 

724. The third division of Grammar is Orthonomy. 

It treats of the representation of thought in correct forms 
in words. 

Under words, syllables and letters are included. 

An example of forms of representation for the ear, is in the mode of 
pronouncing a word in spoken language ; of those for the eye, in the 
mode of spelling a word, in written language, 

725. The name, Orthonomy, is derived from a Greek com 
pound of two words (opdog, vofiog) : one signifying correct, 
and the other law. It shows the rule or law, for giving forth 
words correctly, both in writing and speaking them. 

72 G. The standaid for correctness is universal and establish- 
ed Usage* The authority next to usage, is that of Analogy, 
with Principles. 

727. 1. Usage is the common consent of those who write 
and speak one language, as shown in their mode of using it. 
In English Grammar, it is common consent applied to this 
language. 

2. Analogy is conformity of use to structure, so that there shall be 
similar use in words similarly constructed. Example — The accent on the 
words ending in Mttty, placed on the third syllable from the last ; as, 
divisibility. 

* Jus et norma loquendi. Hoe. 



ORTHONOMY. 327 

3. Principles are rules founded in nature. Thus, it is a principle drawn 
from nature that some one syllable, in a word of two or more syllables, 
must be accented, in English. 

4. Analogy and Principles induce consent, and consent forms usage. 

728. 1. UsaGtE, to have authority, must be universal (as opposed to 
what is local). Local practice forms provincialisms and dialects. In 
English, the authority of a custom limited to a county, to a state, or sec- 
tion, is of course inferior to that drawn from general usage in England, 
and the United States. 

2. Usage must be established by time (as opposed to what is new). In- 
novations have less authority than a custom long settled. 

3. Usage must be reputable (as opposed to what is vulgar). The estab- 
lished consent of learned men has more weight than the practice of the 
uneducated. 

4. Usage must be metropolitan (as opposed to what is colonial). Usu- 
ally, colonies form provincialisms, while the mother country presents the 
language in its purity. 

5. The highest authority for the English language, is usage in London 
(in Parliament, in the Pulpit, at the Bar, on the Stage), and in the great 
English Universities. 

729. What is established usage, may be known from Dictionaries. It 
is the duty of the writer of a Dictionary, to record usage as he finds it. 
He is to declare what the law is, not what he thinks it ought to be. 
Where authorities differ as to the spelling or pronunciation of a word, 
they are to be presented, that they may be weighed.* 

730. Since Analogy and Principles do themselves give a general 
direction to usage, they should be regarded by all students of the lan- 
guage.! 

731. Recommendations from Analogy of changes in spelling or pro- 
nunciation, have no authority, till accepted by general consent. 

732. Orthonomy has two divisions, Orthoepy, and Orthog- 
raphy. 

733. Orthoepy treats of correct representation, when words 
are spoken ; Orthography of the same, when the words are 
written or printed. 

Thus, in the pronunciation of a word, we are guided by the first: in 
its spelling, by the second. 

* The distinguishing merit in Worcester's Dictionary. 

t The merit of "Walker's Dictionary is, that it gives the analogies and principles 
which guide usage. 



328 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

734. In botli Orthoepy and Orthography, one principle pre- 
vails. It is that analogies from native words drawn from the 
Gothic family through the Saxon, affect words adopted from 
other families. (160). 

735. Orthoepy should precede Orthography, since many of the rules 
for words written, are drawn from the sounds of words spoken. 



ORTHOEPY. 329 



CHAPTER I. 

Oethoepy. 

736. Orthoepy is that branch of Grammar, which treats of 
the rules for the correct utterance of words. 

Correct utterance, is correct representation for the ear. 

737. It includes Accentuation, Enunciation, and Pronun- 
ciation. 

738. It promotes the next attainment. The sixteenth attainment in Ian- 
guage, consists in ability to speak the words of the language properly. 

The defects to be obviated, are those of misplaced accent, defective 
utterance, or of vulgar, careless, or local pronunciation. 



Sec. 1. — Accentuation. 

739. Accentuation is that law of language, which, in a 
word of two or more syllables, gives distinction to one of those 
syllables y as, in the first syllable of mercy. 

Accentuation is a principle, because taught by nature. 
To distinguish one syllable from the others, means to distinguish the 
vowel -sound, since the vowel is the soul of a syllable. (552.) 

740. The distinction is formed by making that vowel-sound 
louder than the rest, or longer. If it be louder , more force 
is given to the sound of the vowel ; if it be longer, more 

TIME. 

Giving distinction by force is called Accent : giving it by 
time, Quantity. 

Rules for Accentuation apply to both. 

741. The English language marks the distinguishing sylla- 



330 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ble of a word by accent ; many other languages, by quantity,* 
as the Greek and Latin. 

142. A language employing accent for distinction, uses quantity, sub- 
ordinately. A language employing quantity for distinction, uses accent, 
subordinately. 

Thus, accent in English, distinguishes the first syllable in the word 
real. But the vowel, e, must also be made longer than the vowel, a, in 
at, or the word is not rightly pronounced. That syllable must have 
more quantity. Examples where accent is subordinate to quantity, are 
familiar to all students of Greek. 

743. It is impossible to pronounce any language properly, without a 
constant regard to both ; to the force and the time required for vowel 
sounds, according to usage. In English, the time for an accented sylla- 
ble, should be about equal to that for two unaccented. 

A common defect in speaking English, is a disregard of quantity. The 
same defect resulting from the habit of thinking of accent alone, is car- 
ried by us into the pronunciation of French. In the latter language, the 
length of vowel-sounds must be regarded. 

744. The purpose proposed in all Accentuation, is to dis- 
tinguish that syllable which needs distinction, whether for 
sense, or sound. 

14:5. For expressing the rules of Accentuation, the syllables of words 
are named in an order proceeding from the last towards the beginning, 
as, last, second last, third last, fourth last; and thus continuously so far 
as may be necessary. The number used for a syllable, always indicates 
the place of that syllable, in counting from the end. 

The usual names have been, ultimate, penultimate, antepenultimate, 
but such a nomenclature is cumbrous, soon exhausted, and unintelligible 
to those who have not studied Latin. 

Accent. 

Y46. Accent is a stress of the voice in a word of two or 
more syllables, which distinguishes one syllable by making it 
louder than the other, or others. The same effect is produced 
by making the rest softer. 

* An important rule for recollection, when acquiring the pronunciation of foreign 
mguagcs. 



PRINCIPLES OF ACCENT. 331 

Ex. — In the word, re-pul-sion, the syllables, re and sion, are softer 
than the accented syllable, pul. 

747. Accent in English has been regarded as fixed by usage, capric- 
iously, without rule. But it is really guided by analogies and princi- 
ciples. (754.) 

The cause of the mistake has been, that accent has not been referred 
to its source, the formation of sounds and words ; subjects already ex- 
plained, under Etymology. 

Principles of Accent. 

748. The principles of Accent, are derived from Etymol- 
ogy. 

Etymology explains accent, and reduces it to rule. 

749. Accent is principally for sense, incidentally for sound. 

By its being for sense, is meant that it is directed by the derivation of 
a word, as shown by "Word-Building. By its being for sound, is meant 
that it is directed by Phonology, to Euphony, so as to give sounds easy 
for the speaker, and agreeable to the hearer. It is thus founded on Con- 
struction, as applied both to vocal sounds and to the form of words. 

750. These principles apply, for distinction of sense; 1, to derivative 
words ; 2, to compounds ; 3, to words with the same letters but differ- 
ent meanings. They apply for distinction of sound ; 4, to those words 
from foreign sources, whose primary sense is too little felt to affect the 
accent. The universal rule which guides all, is the simple one : Accent 
distinguishes that which needs to be distinguished. 

1. In Derivative words, the syllable which needs to be distinguished 
for sense, is that which contains the Stem- Word, or some Primitive; a*, 
oversee, incompressible. Such accent indicates the Derivation. 

2. In Compounds, the syllable which needs to be distinguished, is the 
distinguishing part of the compound, and not the common part ; as, 
hand-book, guide-book, word-book: stelliferous, auriferous; star-bearing, 
gold-bearing. 

Here the accent is for division. The common part of the compound, 
presents a class ; as, books : the distinguishing part, some division of that 
class ; as, guide-book, or hand-book. 

3. In words of the same letters and elementary sounds, but having 
different meanings, the difference in use needs to be distinguished by dif- 
ference in the place of accent ; as, in the Verb overthrow, and the Noun 
overthrow ; in the Yerb conduct, and the Noun conduct. 



332 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In such examples, the accent is for contrast 

4. Accent for sound is applied to those words from foreign sources, 
whose primary sense is too . little felt to affect the accent. In such 
words, there is no syllable which needs to be distinguished under the 
demands of sense, and the accent may be so placed as to make the word 
easy in the speaking, and agreeable in the hearing. 

Such are the distinctions for modifications of sense, or of sound: Of 
Sense, by indicating Derivation, Division, or Contrast; of Sound, by in- 
dicating a desire for Euphony. 

751. These principles extend into all languages, even where the dis- 
tinction is made by Quantity, and not by Accent. 

They lie at the foundation of all accent in English words. 

Rules of English Accent in Native "Words. 

752. Rules for English accent, are drawn from these prin- 
ciples. They are seen primarily in native words ; from these 
they are extended by analogy to foreign. 

The laws of accent for native words, are these : 
1. In Derivatives, the radical syllable containing the Stem- 
Word, takes the accent :* 

As, standing, stdnder, understand, understanding, misunderstanding, out- 
standing. These are derivatives from the Stem-Word, Stand ; and the 
syllable having that word, takes the accent. In like manner, righteous, 
righteousness, unrighteously, unrighteousness, derived from Eight. 

.2. In compounds, the distinguishing part takes the accent : 

As, hearth-stone, door-stone, curb-stone, gravestone, top-stone, mill-stone, 
grind-stone, whet-stone. 

3. In words spelt alike, but used differently, difference in use is indi- 
cated by difference in accent. 

As, Noun overthrow ; Yerb overthrow. 

753. In practice, show how these rules apply : 

1. To all native branch- words with a prefix, as oversee, undergo: 

2. To all correspondent derivatives, viz. : 
(a.) Yerbs in en; as, blacken, harden, soften : 

(b.) Nouns of the thing, in ness, dom, hood, let, ry, ship ; as, brightness 
dukedom, hardihood, streamlet, bravery, friendship : 

* The rule in the German. 



accent: foreign words; by sense. 333 

(c.) To Nouns of the person in er, ster, ard, ling, kin, and ist, though 
adopted; as, baker, lover, songster, drunkard, gosling, bumpkin, cellar ist: 

(d.) To Adjectives in en, ful, some, y, ish, like, ly, ing, ed, less ; as, wooden, 
beautiful, gladsome, woody, greenish, manlike (though strictly a com- 
pound), gladly, making, mated, sightless: 

3. To all compounds ; as, man-eating : 

4. To all contrasts ; as, Noun overflow ; Yerb overflow. 
Read such words, and state the reason for the accent given. 
Such are the rules for the accent in native words. 

Rules of Accent in Foreign Words. 

754. The rules for accent in words of Saxon origin are ap- 
plied by analogy to those adopted from foreign sources, as from 
the Greek and Latin. They are modified by accent for sound, 
and, in a very few instances, by the accent of the language 
from which they came. 

They are not rules without exceptions, but the latter are left to ob- 
servation. 

Accent for Sense. 

755. These rules are seen in foreign Branch- Words, in Correspondent 
Derivatives, and in Compounds, when the accent is for sense. 

156. Accent founded on Derivation, is shown (1) in Branch- Words, 
and (2) in Correspondent Derivatives, from the Classic family. 

1. (a.) Branch- Words, adopted from foreign sources, and 
which are Verbs, having a Stem-Word and a prefix, usually 
take the accent on the Stem-Word, and not on the particle, 
unless the accent is forced from its natural place by the de- 
mand for contrast, or for sound ; 

As, reduce, produce, confuse, refuse, attract, contract. In a few such 
words ; as, derogate, subjugate, instigate, it is thrown on the prefix, for 
sound. 

(5.) Nouns, and a few Adjectives, which have the same let- 
ters with these Verbs, usually change the accent of the verb 
under the law of contrast, unless the accent by sound may 
prevent; 



334 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

» As, Noun conduct, Yerb conduct: Noun contrast, Yerb contrast : Noun 
produce, Yerb product : Noun record, Yerb record : and Adjective absent, 
Yerb absent: Adjective desert, Yerb desert: Adjective frequent, Yerb fre- 
quent. There are exceptions. Both Noun and Yerb take the same ac- 
cent by usage in discourse. 

2. Correspondent Derivatives generally leave, in any 
Secondary, the accent belonging to its Primary. Hence, 

(a.) Nouns of the Person, derived from a Yerb, usually leave the ac- 
cent as it stood on the Yerb ; as, conductor, from the Yerb to conduct ; re- 
flector, from the Yerb to reflect This keeps the accent on the Stem- Word. 

(b.) Adjectives from a Verb, usually leave the accent as it stood on the 
Yerb; as, Adj. productive, from the Yerb produce; Adj. reflective, from 
the Yerb, reflect This keeps the accent on the Stem- Word. 

(c.) Adverbs derived from Adjectives, usually leave the accent as it 
stood on the Adjective ; as, Adv. productively, Adj. productive. 

(d.) Where the Yerb is not a Branch- Word, but one of the Correspon- 
dent Derivatives, it usually follows the common rule, and leaves the ac- 
cent on its Primary; as, Yerb immortalize, from Adj. immortal; Yerb 
glorify, from Adj. glorious; Yerb publish, from Adj. public. 

(e.) A Primary drawn directly from a Stem- Word, without a prefix, 
usually takes the accent on the Stem-Word ; as, captive, capture, from 
capio ; pressure, from press; ductile, from duco ; fiction, from fingo, fictum. 

(/.) Nouns of the Thing, receive the accent rather according to Sound, 
than Sense. But the second Nouns of the Thing, derived from an Adjec- 
tive, usually leave the accent as it stood on the Adjective ; as, Noun pro- 
ductiveness, from Adj. productive. This is seen especially where the ter- 
mination of the noun is ness. With other terminations than ness, they 
indicate the primary, by an accent on its distinguishing termination ; as, 
Noun visibility, from Adj. visible; Noun activity, from Adj. active. 

In all these cases, the accent is determined by Derivation, and is for 
Sense. The same law applies to foreign, which belongs to native words. 

757. In compound words (752. 2), from foreign sources, the same rule 
is applied as to compound words which are native. 

(a,) The accent in foreign compounds, is upon the distinguishing, and 
not the common part. This rule applies to words with the following 
terminations : 

1. From the Greek. 



logy, 


as geology. 


phony, 


as cacophony. 


graphy, 


as geography. 


machy. 


as logomachy. 


phagus, 


as sarcophagus. 


nomy, 


as astronomy, economy. 





ccent: foreign 


words; 


BY SENSE. 33i> 


*str ophe, 


as catastrophe. 


tomy, 


as lithotomy. 


meter \ 


as barometer. 


scopy, 


as c&roscopy. 


gonal, 


as octagonal. 


pathy, 


as idiopathy, allopathy. 


cracy. 


as democracy. 


mathy, 


as polymathy. 


gony, 


as cosmogony. 








2. From 


the Latin. 




loqv/y, 


as soliloquy, ventrilo- 


fluent, 


as mellifluent, circum- 




quy. 




fluent* 


vorous, 


as carnivorous, pisci- 


vomous, 


as ignvcomous. 




vorous. 


parous, 


as viviparous, ovipar- 


ferous, 


as vociferous. 




ous. 


jiuOUS, 


as mellifluous. 







Here are twenty-two terminations, all putting the accent on the third 
last, forming what are called dactyls at the end. 

(b.) In all these cases, the accent is for Division — for dividing the dis- 
tinguishing from the common part of the compound, and is thus for 
Sense. The same law applies to foreign, which belongs to Native Words. 

(c.) The conformity to the law, for native compounds, is seen when wo 
substitute equivalent words from the Saxon ; as, fish-eating, flesh-eating ; 
live-born, egg-born; gold-bearing, star-bearing; earth-lore, time-lore; for 
piscivorous, carnivorous ; viviparous, oviparous; auriferous, stelliferous ; 
geology, chronology. 

158. Accent for contrast is seen in the termination ee, for nouns of the 
Person Passive ; as, appellant, appellee. The passive Suffix takes the 
accent. 

f59. Such are accents for Sense, applied to foreign words adopted; 
and thus do the native rules for accent, to indicate Derivation, Division, 
and Contrast, pervade the foreign words. 

?60. The influence of the foreign accent of the foreign word, is but 
slightly felt in the English accent, though it is perceptible, especially in 
Proper Names, in the Pronunciation. A very slight influence from Uni- 
versities may be traced in such words as, sonorous, decorum, abdomen, 
bitumen. 

What has been thought the influence of Greek and Latin Accent, on 
the Accent of English words, is rather the influence of the common laws 
of accentuation, which are common to all men, and which underlie alike 
their Quantities, and our Accents. 



* Derivatives are here accented as compounds by analogy with compounds. 



336 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Accent for Sound. 

761. Where the Sense is not impressed, we then direct the 
voice by Sound, and seek for Euphony. 

This tendency is seen when people, and especially when children 
read poetry without feeling its meaning. They then put stress on sylla- 
bles, as if they were keeping time in marching. This is a common dis- 
position in all men, to regard Sound where Sense is not felt. The same 
tendency is found in single words, when the law of their construction 
is not known and felt. 

762. With foreign words, the Sense of their Derivation and 
Composition is not made so prominent as in native words. 
Hence it is that some Derivative words take the accent in 
the position where it will be more easy for the speaker, and 
more agreeable for the person hearing. Thus we have ac- 
cents for Sound or Euphony. 

763. The tendency of the language in polysyllables, is rather to throw 
the accent for sound back from the end of the word, and toward the be- 
ginning. 

764. The leading facts in the language, in accent for Sound, will be 
simply stated. 

1. The accent is on the second-last (penultimate, forming what is 
called a trochee at the ending), with the terminations : 

(a.) ion, in Nouns of the Thing, as production, revolution. 

(b.) ive, preceded by a consonant in Adjs., as productive. 

(c.) ic, aic, in Adjs. (with exceptions), as scientific, algebr&ic. 

(d.) ate, in Verbs " " as confiscate, demonstrate, illustrate. 

2. The accent is on the third-last (antepenultimate, forming at the end 
what is called a Dactyl), with the terminations : 

{a.) ive, preceded by a vowel in Adjs., as relative (except credtive). 

(b.) iac, in Adjs., as demoniac. 

(c.) eons, ious, in Adjs., as spontaneous, melodious. 

(d.) al (ical, acal, eal), in Adjs., as fanatical, heliacal, ethereal. A few 

exceptions exist. 

(e.) an (ean, ian), in Adjs., as cerulean, herculean. 

but with exceptions, as European, adamantean, epicurean. 

(/) ous (ul-, in-, er-, or-, ous) in Adj., as sedulous, voluminous. 

(a.) ar, ary, ory, as angular, military, promissory, 

(h.) ia, for Nouns. as regalia, malaria, 

(i.) ian w " as meridian. 

(J.) tude u as grdtitiide, beatitude. 



enunciation: rule for vowels. 337 

(#•) ty (ityt bility\ as liber 6,lity, insensibility, activity. 

(I.) fy, for Verbs, as diversify, rarefy (though the accent 

should be rather referred to sense than 

sound). 

3. The accent is on the fourth-last (the preantepenultimate) in such 
words as interrogatory, derogatory; but from sense, rather than for sound. 

4 It is on the fifth-last (antepreantepenultimate) in signiftcatory, but 
again by sense. 

5. The accent is sometimes brought to the same place, by both sound 
and sense. 

The exceptions to these general rules, are left for observation through 
the dictionary. 

765. Beside the Primary accent on a word, there are secondary ac- 
cents, found especially in longer words. Thus, indivisibility, has its 
primary accent on the third-last, on the syllable, bil. But there is a 
secondary accent on vis, and a lower one on in 

766. For the first exercise under the sixteenth attainment, correct 
wrong accent in the following words : 

Demonstrate, illustrate, idea, discourse, opponent, confiscate, contem- 
plate, concentrate. 



Sec. 2. — Enunciation. 

767. The second part of Orthoepy is Enunciation. 
Enunciation, generally, is the mode of uttering the vowels 

and consonants of a word. 

It is shown in conversation, reading, or singing ; in speaking or read- 
ing in public ; and in giving orders in the field. 

Enunciation may be good or bad. 

Enunciation, as a head of grammar, treats of a good and proper utter- 
ance of the vowels and consonants of words. 

768. For all these the primary requirements are : (1.) Such a posture 
of the body and such a mode of breathing as will give the fullest supply 
of breath. It may be summed in erect posture and dilated chest. (2.) 
Such a mode of holding some breath in reserve, resupplying at pauses, 
and inhaling very fully before greater efforts or longer sentences, that 
the air in the chest shall never be fully exhausted. This may be summed 
in the direction to make* the channel for the breath narrow in the 
throat. 

* A Scotch bagpipe shows precisely what should be tho condition of the breath 

13 



338 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The reason why this is a primary demand, is evident. The agent in 
Bpeech is the breath, not the organs (4^8, 4^9). Every good effect is 
from the former, not from straining the latter. 

769. For Vowel Sounds to be properly given, there must be 
fulness from collected breath. 

1. In every syllable of a word, and specially in that which has the 
accent, the vowel must first receive the care of the speaker. The 
vowel is the soul of the word. He who reads or speaks must foresee 
that first, and prepare breath for it. 

2. Yowel sounds are made by condensation of the breath (494) If 
the breath be not sufficient, it cannot be condensed, nor the vowel sounds 
be given. 

3. Vowel sounds must be all made full, so that the ear shall be de- 
frauded of no part of them. The fault of pronunciation in the United 
States and Canada is usually in this particular — in the poverty of the 
vowel sounds. 

4. Vowels are long or short, simple or compound. The long must 
not be made short; as, cool, not cull; fool, not full; boat, not but. In the 
compounds, each constituent must appear in the sound ; as, faithful, not 
fethful; cheerful, not cherful. In the short vowels, the sound must pass 
with distinctness to the following consonant, and dwell there long enough 
to equal the sound of a long vowel ; as, act, and, shall, will. fell. The 
whole syllable, with its consonants, must occupy as much time as the 
long vowel sounded alone. We must occupy as much time in pronounc- 
ing f, short e, and 1, in the word "fell" as we would in sounding e 
long and accented in E-den = Ee-den. 

110. For the Consonants, the primary requirement is what 
was named by the Greeks the round mouth. 

It is that position of the organs which would be given when drawing 
the breath (as in singing), for a very full sound of the letter o, made 
.long, as in ore. 

I 1. The reason is, that all the consonants are made by contact of the 
organs, before and after condensation of the breath in the vowels. 

2. For this contact, the organs must have room to draw back before 
the touch; to make the touch rapidly, but distinctly; and to withdraw 

and the organs. The bag is kept full of air. The pipes into which it is driven are 
narrow. The chest corresponds to the bag, and must be kept full of air ; the channel 
of the throat to the pipes, and must be kept narrow, both for reserving breath, and 
for giving swelling and resonant sounds. 



enunciation: rule for consonants. 339 

for the next vowel sound. Thus to make the Labials, p, b, m, f, v, the 
lips must be first apart, then touched, then separated. The same is 
true of the tip of the tongue for the Dentals, t, d, n, s, z, TH, Th : of the 
back of the tongue for the Gutturals, K, hard g (as in egg), and ng (as 
in Ting) : of the middle of the tongue for the Linguals, ch, sh, j, zh ; and 
of the whole body of the tongue for the Liquids, I and r. And so for the 
semi-vowels, w, y, h, where the organs must approach, but yet not 
touch, they must be drawn back for room, then approach, and then 
recoil, before the next sound. This is seen when any one sings or 
speaks forcibly, we, ye, lie, or way, yea, hay. The lips approach in w ; 
parts of the upper throat in y ; parts of the lower throat in the sound 
of h, as, in he, or hay. The parts need space for the preparation be- 
fore, and the recoil after the approach. 

3. The round mouth gives the condition necessary for all the conson- 
ants and for the semi-vowels. It makes the inner part of the mouth 
like a hollow globe. The tongue is drawn down, the orifice of the 
throat narrowed in holding the breath, and the lips rounded. 

171. The round mouth, joined with an erect posture, straight neck, 
full chest, and barred breath, gives room to the vocal chords so that they 
receive their full resonance in reverberation, and the sounds given 
under these conditions fill a much wider space. 

It is an important condition for speaking, or giving orders in the open 
air. The vowels of an order should ring within the mouth. 

Such are the requirements for enunciation, that it may be distinct and 
full. 

1*72. For a second exercise under the sixteenth attainment: 

1. State the proper mode for making each of the elementary sounds 
in English, and sound each perfectly as an illustration, according to the 
" description and definition" which follow. Take exemplifying words 
from a dictionary. Such an exercise forms phonetic parsing. It is the 
parting of vocal sounds into their elements. 

It furnishes preparatory practice for declamation. 

2. Take words with the same vowel-sound with different spelling, 
sound them perfectly and state what is common ; as, ate, eight, mite, might. 

Do this where the sounds of consonants are the same, but the spelling 
of them different; as, Cicero, sister, mouse, mice; Carthage, kill, hind, 
George, jew, jam, gem; oaks, ox, knocks, box; muse, lose, whiz; of, move; 
staff, skiff, telegraph. 

State by what letters in English the same elementary sound is repre- 
sented. 

3. Put the elementary sounds (Tables 518, 527) on board, or paper in 



340 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a list, or tabular form. Bead words from a book, and point on the 
board or paper to the elementary sounds expressed, when the word ia 
spoken. Where two or more simple sounds are combined in a vowel or 
consonant, do not fail to touch each one of them. 



Description and Definition of each elementary sound in the English, and 
in other languages* Specimens of Phonetic Parsing. (Phonology, 
47G-543.) 

I. Consonants. 

(a.) Labials. 

P, as in ep, is a Consonant, Labial, Concludent, Oral ; made by close contact of the 
lips, and by pressing the arrested breath toward the mouth and lips, without rever- 
beration.f 

B, as in eb, is a Consonant, Labial, Concludent, Pectoral ; made by the same contact 
of the lips, as for P, and by pressing the arrested breath toward the chest, with rever- 
beration on the vocal chords. 

M, is a Consonant, Labial, Concludent, Nasal; made by the same contact of the 
lips, as for P, and by pressing the arrested breath into the nose, with reverberation 
on the vocal chords. 

F, is a Consonant, Labial, Continuant, Oral; made by loose contact of the lower 
lip against the upper teeth, allowing some breath to escape ; and by pressure of 
the arrested breath toward the mouth, without reverberation. 

Y, as in #y, is a Consonant, Labial, Continuant, Pectoral ; made by the same posi 
tion of the lips as for F, and by pressure of the arrested breath toward the chest, 
with reverberation. 

* Of great utility for the public speaker, the singer, the foreigner, the officer ; for 
teachers and, parents who are teaching the young to sound their words well; for 
those whose manner of speaking is defective ; for those acquiring the pronunciation 
of foreign languages, and for stammerers. 

The stammerer should firstly sing each sound by rule. Then when he proceeds to 
epeak he should sound each word alone, with his hand beating on a table to compel 
himself to keep time. 

t In giving the definition of an elementary sound, the learner should be prepared 
to state, when required, the reason for each part of it. Thus ep (P) is a consonant. 
Why ? The sound is made by contact of the organs. It is a Labial. Why ? It is 
made by the lips. It is a Concludent. "Why? No breath passes from the mouth 
at the instant of forming the sound after a vowel ; as, ep. Why not? The contact ia 
complete. It is an oral. Why ? It is made without pectoral or nasal reverberation. 
If there were reverberation, what sounds would be formed ? The sounds of eb, or 
mi. (543.) 



enunciation: elementary sounds. 341 

W, as a Consonant, is a Labial, next in order to V, but classed with Towels in the 
explanation. 

(b.) Dentals. 

T, as in et, is a Consonant, Dental, Concludent, Oral ; made by close contact of the 
tip of the tongue against the arch of the mouth in a single point, and by pressure of 
the arrested breath toward the mouth, without reverberation. 

D, as in ed, is a Consonant, Dental, Concludent, Pectoral; made by the same con- 
tact of the tongue as for T, and by pressure of the-arrested breath toward the chest, 
with reverberation. 

N, is a Consonant, Dental, Concludent, Nasal ; made by the same contact of the 
tongue as for T, and by pressure of the arrested breath toward the nostrils, with re- 
verberation. 

S, is a Consonant, Dental, Continuant, Oral ; made by loose contact of the tip of the 
tongue against the arch of the month, allowing some breath to pass at a single point, 
and with pressure of the arrested breath toward the mouth, without reverberation. 

Z, as in ez, is a Consonant, Dental, Continuant, Pectoral ; made by the same posi- 
tion of the tongue as for S, with pressure of the arrested breath toward the chest, 
with reverberation. 

Til, hard, as in thick, is a Consonant, Dental, Continuant, Oral ; made by contact 
of the tip of the tongue against the arch of the mouth, in two points, between which 
some breath passes, and by pressure of the arrested breath into the mouth, without 
reverberation.* 

Th, soft, as in breathe, is a Consonant, Dental, Continuant, Pectoral ; made by the 
same contact of the tongue as for hard TH, and by pressure of the arrested breath 
toward the chest, with reverberation. 

Note. — The sound of TH, or Th, is nnused in many languages. The sounds have 
no letters for them in the English Alphabet, Two letters, t and h, express them. 

(c.) Linguals. 

CH, as in cheer, is a Consonant, Lingual, Concludent, Oral ; made by close contact 
of the middle surface of the tongue against the arch of the mouth, and by pressure 
of the arrested breath into the mouth, without reverberation. The sound has no let- 
tar in the English Alphabet. 

J, is a Consonant, Lingual, Concludent, Pectoral; made by the same position of the 
tongue as for ch, in cheer, and by pressure of the arrested breath toward the chest, 
with reverberation. 

SH, as in sheep, is a Consonant, Lingual, Continuant, Oral ; made by loose contact 
of the middle surface of the tongue with the arch of the mouth, allowing some 
breath to escape, and by pressure of the arrested breath into the mouth, without re- 
verberation. The sound has no separate letter in the English Alphabet. 

ZII, as heard in azure, pleasure, is a Consonant, Lingual, Continuant, Pectoral; 
made by the same position of the tongue as for SH, and by pressure of the arrested 
breath toward the chest, with reverberation. The sound has no separate letter in 
the English Alphabet. 

• This definition will assist the foreigner in acquiring this sound easily. 



342 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(d.) Liquids. 

R, is a Consonant, Liquid, Continuant ; made by the whole body of the tongue, 
stretched and hollowed near the arch of the mouth, and by pressure of the breath 
along the channel. It is Oral, when the main pressure of the arrested breath is to- 
ward the mouth, without reverberation, as in sharp. It is Pectoral, when the main 
pressure is toward the chest, with reverberation ; as, in rub, herb. R lengthens a 
vowel-Bound before it The Pectoral sound of R, is represented in some languages by 
rh, as, in Greek, rhetoric, rheum. If the tongue form successive touches, the rolling 
R is produced, which is prevalent in the Irish pronunciation. In English words, it is 
never silent, and any pronunciation which does not sound it is defective. 

L, is a Consonant, Liquid, Continuant ; made by the whole body of the tongue re- 
laxed, and laid gently against the arch of the mouth, and by pressure of the arrested 
breath on each side of the tongue. It is Oral when the pressure is toward the 
mouth, without reverberation ; as, in help, kelt. It is Pectoral, when the pressure is 
toward the chest, with reverberation ; as, in mild. Some languages represent the 
Pectoral by doubling the letter, or by hi. 

(e.) Gutturals. 

K, as in eh, is a Consonant, Guttural, Concludent, Oral ; made by close contact of 
the back of the tongue against the palate, and by pressure of the arrested breath to- 
ward the mouth, without reverberation. 

G, hard, as, in gag, is a Consonant, Guttural, Concludent, Pectoral ; made by the 
name contact of the tongue as for K, and by pressure of the arrested breath toward 
the chest, with reverberation. 

Ng, as, in ring, is a Consonant, Guttural, Concludent, Nasal ; made by the same 
contact of the tongue as for K", and by pressure of the arrested breath toward the 
nostrils, with reverberation. The sound has no separate letter in the English Alpha- 
bet, but is represented by ng, or by nh ; as, in wing, Unh, pronounced lingh. 

©ft, German, as in buch, is a Consonant, Guttural, Continuant, Oral ; made by loose 
contact of the back of the tongue with the palate, permitting a narrow orifice, as for 
ef (F), at the lips, through which some breath may pass, and by pressure of the 
arrested breath toward the mouth, without reverberation. 

This sound no longer exists in English. It has passed, in words derived from the 
Saxon into the adjoining sound of K, as in hough, pronounced hoh, or into the analo- 
gous sound of F, as in cough, trough, pronounced hauf, 1/rauf, or into a vowel sound, 
as through = throo ; bough = bow. 

q, German final, as in machtig, is a Consonant, Guttural, Continuant, Pectoral ; made 
by the same position of the tongue as for eft, German, and'by pressure of the arrested 
breath toward the chest, with reverberation. 

This sound no longer exists in English. It has passed in most Saxon words into 
the adjoining sound of y ; as, mighty, for Saxon mihtig, and German, machtig. 



enunciation: elementary sounds. 343 

II. Towels and Semi- Vowels, 
simple vowels. 
(a.) Lip- Vowels, 

TV, as in we, is a Semi- Vowel, and the next sound on the lips to the Consonant V. It 
Is formed by projecting the lips, and contracting them, so as to form a small circular 
opening. The breath passing through this opening forms the sound. It is longer, 
as in woo, and shorter, as in wet. The sound is represented in French by U long, as 
in sure, and short, as in sue. A correct and forcible pronunciation of the English W 
gives the position of the lips for the French sound. 

00, as in moor, boot, is a Primary Lip-Vowel, formed by a circular position of the 
lips like that for W, but with one degree less of contraction. In the order of sounds 
it is next to that of W (541). The condensed breath passing through the circular 
opening of the lips, and striking on vocal chords, forms the sound. It is long, as in 
moor ; short, as in boot. It is usually made long by a Continuant after it ; as, pool, 
ooze, and short by a Concludent ; as, book. The same sound exists in other languages, 
represented variously, but usually by the letter U; as, um = oom. 

0, as in rose, smoke, is a Secondary Lip-Vowel, formed by a position of the lips like 
that for 00 ; but with one less degree of contraction. In the order of sounds, for 
all languages, it is next to 00, and next but one to TV. The condensed breath pass- 
ing through the circular opening of the lips forms the sound. It is longer, as in 
roar, rose, roll, and shorter, as in smoke, ope, note, being usually lengthened by a 
Continuant after it, and shortened by a Concludent The sound is represented in 
most languages by the letter O. 

O, in nor, not, is a Secondary of the class of Lip-Vowels, and the most open of the 
class. It is formed by a circular position of the lips like that for O, in ro3e, but with 
one less degree of contraction. In the order of sounds, for all languages, it is next to O, 
in rose, next but one to 00, and next but two to W. The condensed breath passing 
through the circular opening forms the sound. It is longer before R, and most Con- 
tinuants, as in nor, off, and shorter before T, and Concludents, as in hot, rock. It 
exists in most languages differently represented. Breathed in the nose, it forms the 
French nasal-vowel, on, as Napoleon. 

The primary rule for Lip-Vowels is to make a circular opening with the lips. 

(5.) Head, or Upper Throat- Vowels* 

T, as in year, yet, is a Semi- Vowel, and the next sound (on the palate to the Ger- 
man final q, and) on the tongue to L. It is formed by drawing the back of the tongue 
toward the palate, so as to make a small opening without contact, like that for TV 
with the lips. The condensed breath passing through that opening forms the sound. 
It is longer, as in ye, and shorter, as in yet. The sound is represented differently in 
different languages, as in English, yonder, milUon=ml\l-yon. 

EE, as in veer, meek, is the Primary Upper Throat (or Head) Vowel formed by an 
opening between the tongue and palate similar to that forY, but with one less degree of 

* Either name may be employed. 



344 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

contraction. In the order of sounds for all languages, it is next to the sound of Y, 
in ye. The condensed breath passing through the opening between the back of the 
tongue and the palate forms the sound. It is longer before R, and before many of the 
Continuants, as in veer, eel, breeze; and shorter before Concludents ; as, keep, meek, 
antique, beet. It is represented in other languages than the English almost uniformly 
by I ; as in French, He, for the long, and il, for its short sound. 

I, as in ir-resolute, and it, is a Secondary Head-Towel, formed by an opening be- 
tween the back of the tongue and palate, similar to that for EE, but with one less 
degree of contraction. In the order of sounds for all languages, it is next to EE, and 
next but one to Y. The condensed breath passing through the opening forms the 
sound. It is longer before E, as in the first syllable of in-radiate, and before somo 
Continuants ; as, give, live, his, with. It is short before Concludents ; as, lip, rid, hit. 
It does not enter some languages. It exists in English and Russian, but not in French. 
It is represented sometimes by the letter Y, as well as by I. 

E, in merry, met, is a Secondary of the Head-Yowels, and the most open of the 
class. It requires special attention, because it enters into those sounds, in foreign 
languages, which a learner, to whom English is his native tongue, finds most diffi- 
cult to acquire. It is formed by an opening between the back of the tongue and the 
palate, so great as to cause a distinct projection of the lower jaw, by the act of 
moving the tongue away from contact. In the order of sounds, for all languages, it is 
next to I, in it, having one less degree of contraction, next but one to EE, and next 
but two to Y. The condensed breath passing through the opening forms the sound. 
It is longer before R ; as in merry, very, berry, and in the pronunciation of Walker for 
mercy, virgin. The turning of this sound, before R, into that of ur is a corruption. 
It is shorter before Concludents, as in met, reck, ebb. It is found in most languages, 
represented by E. It is called in French E open. 

The primary rule for forming Head-Yowels well is to project the lower jaw. 

(c.) Chest, or Lower Throat- Vowels* 

H, as in hard, is a Semi-Yowel, the next sound on the back of the tongue to the 
final German g, and English gutturals. It is formed by drawing the base of the 
tongue toward the back of the lower throat, so as to make a small opening without 
contact, similar to that at the palate for Y, and on the lips for "W. The condensed 
breath passing through the opening forms the sound heard in hear, as distinguished 
from ear, and hold, from old. It is longer, as in heal, and shorter, as in hot. It is 
represented variously in different languages, as in Greek by a comma over the 
vowel. 

U, in ur, up, is the Primary Chest-Yowel, formed by an opening in the lower 
throat like that for the sound of II, in hard, but with one less degree of contraction. 
In the order of sounds it is next to H. The condensed breath passing through the 
opening between the base of the tongue and the back of the throat forms the sound. 
It is longer before R ; as in fur, hurl, turn, and shorter before other consonants ; as, up, 
rub, hum, hut, dun. It is a prevalent sound in careless and vulgar pronunciation. 
The -sound is represented differently in different languages. In French, the sound of 
U in ur, is represented by E, as in le, and by EU, as in jeu. The passing of other 
vowel-sounds into this marks the degeneracy of a language. The short sound of 
U in up, breathed through the nose, forms the French nasal- vowel un, as in bruru 

* Either name may be employed. 



enunciation: vowel-sounds. 345 

A, in arrow, at, is a Secondary Chest-Towel, numbered two, formed by an opening 
in the lower throat, like that for U, in «r, but with one less degree of contraction. It 
is next to this in the order of the sounds, and next but one to the semi-vowel, II. 
The condensed breath passing through the opening, between the base of the tongue 
and back of the throat, forms the sound. It is longer before E ; as in carry, marry 
fare, dare, care, and shorter before other consonants ; as, at, add, an, attack. 
Breathed through the nose, it forms one of the four nasal- vowels in French, that of 
in, as i7iferieur. It is found in most languages, usually represented by A. 

AW, as in awe, awkward, is a Secondary Chest- Yowel, numbered three in that 
class, formed by an opening in the lower throat, like that for A, in at, but with one 
less degree of contraction, being next to it in the order of sounds. It is next but one 
to at, but two to ur, but three to the sound of H, as in lie. The base of the tongue is 
separated from the back of the throat, with an opening so large as to cause a slight 
contraction of the lips. The condensed breath passing through the opening forms 
the sound. It is longer before W, alone, or with a vowel, as in awe, law, lawful, 
and also before LL ; as, all, call, ball. It is shorter before Continuants ; as, awk- 
ward, caught, bought. Its shorter sound is like that of the most open of the Lip- 
Yowels, O, in nor. Breathed through the nose, it forms one of the four nasal-vowels 
in French, that represented by en; as, ewcore. In other languages, it is usually repre- 
sented by O ; as in or, made long. 

AH, as in father, ah, arm, is a Secondary of the Chest- Yowels, the most open of 
the class, and has the distinction of being the most open of all the vowels. It is 
formed by an opening between the base of the tongue and back of the throat, the 
largest which will admit of vocal sound. The condensed breath passing through the 
opening, forms the sound. It necessarily opens the mouth widely. It is long at the 
end of syllables, as in farther ; before H ; as, ah, Ahmed ; before E, and before silent 
L; as, calm, balm, alms. It is short before Continuants mostly; as, after, master, 
past. It is the sound given to the first letter of the Alphabet, in other languages 
than the English, and should be given to it in our mother tongue. Its absence from 
pronunciation, marks the decline, and its restoration, the recovery of a language.* 
It is usually called the Italian A. In all the Indo-European languages, which have 
not degenerated, it is considered as the natural sound of A, and the leader of all the 
vowel-sounds. 

The fundamental rule for making the'Chest-Vowels, is to depress the lower jaw. 

It will be seen in passing from the Chest to the Head and Lip- Vowels, that the cav- 
ity along which the breath passes, is lengthened. Hence it is that the vowel-sounds 
can be imitated on some wind-instruments, by shortening or lengthening the tubes. 



COMPOUND VOWELS. 

(a.) Terminating in the Primary Lip- Vowel, in English. 

1. IT, as heard in use, fuel, is a Compound Vowel-Sound, terminating in the Pri- 
mary Lip-Vowel, 00, before which it places a Head- Vowel, that of EE. It may bo 
thus represented : 

U == ee + oo = Head-Vowel No. 1 and Lip-Vowel No. 1. 



* Such pronunciations as fayther, Aymericay, Canayday; for father, America, 
Canada, may still be heard, and miUshee, for militia. 
15* 



346 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This sound is not represented by the letter U, in other languages, but by vowel- 
letters, as French Alpiou = Al, pee-oo. 

EU, French, is of the same class with the English U ; it is a Compound Vowel- 
Sound, terminating in the Lip-Semi-Vowel, W, before which it places a Head- Vowel, 
that of E, in et. It may be thus represented : 

Eu = e (in et) + u French ; or eu =» Head- Vowel No. 3, and Lip-Semi-Vowel. 

IT, German, is of the same class of combinations with the English U. It is a Com- 
pound Vowel-Sound, terminating in the Primary Lip-Vowel, before which it places a 
Head- Vowel, that of E, in et. It may be thus represented : 

u = e (in et) + oo ; or, equivalent to Head-Vowel No. 3, plus the Primary Lip- 
Vowel. 

The similarity of formation, maybe thus presented to the eye : 
English U =-- ee + oo. 
French EU — e (et) + u (F r.) 
German U =? e (et) + oo. 

To make all these sounds well, there is one common rule, which is, to prepare for 
the last sound first, by putting the lips in the circular and projected form. Then, 
begin with the preceding Head- Vowel, sound it, and make it pass into the terminat- 
ing lip-sound. Thus, those difficult sounds may be the more easily understood, by 
analogies with the English. 

It should be carefully observed that a neglect of the proper and compound sound 
of IT, in English, in words which require it, is a departure from correct usage. This, 
and not the simple sound of OO in moor, must be heard in rebuke, duke, cubic, du» 
ty, fuel, tutor, jewel, jew, dew, due, Tuesday, juice, feud, beauty, tube, and like 
words. It is a vulgarism also to place it where it does not belong. "He tewk him 
tew dew tew things ;" for, "He took him to do two things" 

2. OU, as in now, our, is a Compound Vowel-Sound terminating in the Primary 
Lip-Vowel, before which it places a Chest- Vowel, that of AH. It may be thus repre- 
sented : 

Ou = ah + oo = the most open Chest- Vowel, plus the Primary Lip-Vowel. Obs. — 
In very rapid speaking the previous sound assimilates to A in aw, A in at, or O in not. 

In English, the intermingling of the Head- Vowel, EE, is to be avoided as the vulgar- 
ism, heard in neow, heow, veow, keow, for now, how, vow, cow. 

It is differently represented in different languages, as in German by AU ; as, AusU 
erlitz =- Owst-er-litz. 



(b.) Terminating in the Primary Head- Voivel 

1. 1, as in isle, is a Compound Vowel-Sound, terminating in the Primary Head- Vow- 
el, EE, before which it places a Chest- Vowel, that of AH, in arm. It may be thus 
represented : 

I = ah + ee =» the most open Chest-Vowel, plus the Primary Head- Vowel. 

Observe, that in a very long sound (as in singing) the sound of I in it, interposes 
before EE, forming a tripthong. This is the case with all the Compound Vowel- 
Sounds which terminate in the Head- Vowel, EE. Hence, a full representation of the 
sound is : 

I — ah + i (in it) + ee. 

2. AY, as in day, is a Compound Vowel-Sound terminating in the Primary Head- 



PRONUNCIATION. 347 

Vowel, EE, before which it places the two other Head- Vowels, E in et, and I in it. 
It may be thus represented : Ay -=» e (in et) + i (in it) + ee — the three Head- Vow- 
els in one sound, terminating with the primary. 

The shorter pronunciation hardly gives the middle sound. The shortest possible 
pronunciation gives the sound of the French l£ acute, as ete, while the longest gives 
the French % circumflex, as fete. 

Longest = e + i + EE — Eng., bay, French bete. 
Shorter — e + EE — " bake, " 
Shortest = e + EE = " pate, " eti. 

3. OY, as in boy, oil, is a Compound Vowel-Sound terminating in the Primary 
Head- Vowel, EE, before which it places a Chest- Vowel, that of AW in awl. It 
may be thus represented : 

Oy «= aw + i + EE ; or, Oy = Third Chest- Vowel, plus the Primary Head- Vowel, 
with the second Head- Vowel interposing. 

The middle sound disappears in rapid pronunciation. 

The sound is in other languages, as in German, represented by EU ; as,feuer — faw 
+ i + eer. 

4. UOY, as in buoy, is a Compound Vowel-Sound terminating in the Primary 
Head- Vowel, EE, before which it places a Lip-Vowel, that of 00. It may be thus rep- 
resented : Uoy = oo + i + EE. 

The middle sound disappears in rapid pronunciation. 



Sec. 3. — Pronunciation. 

773. Pronunciation is the mode of sounding the whole 
word according to established usage. 

It applies to foreign and to native words. 

774. In foreign words, the general rule is to preserve the 
pronunciation of the language from which the word is bor- 
rowed, unless it has become Anglicized, with a different pro- 
nunciation. 

This rule is specially applied to proper names, both of 
places and persons. 

775. Proper names adopted from a foreign language pre- 
serve the pronunciation of their home till they have become 
native. 

Thus, in English, Paris has become native, and is sounded as an En- 
glish word. Bordeaux has not become Anglicized, and is pronounced as 
in France. The rule is also extended to some other words beside proper 
names. 



348 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

7? 6. For pronouncing foreign words properly, care must rest upon 
the vowels. 

111. In most European languages the following sounds are given to 
the following letters : 



oo. 
oh. 
ee. 



JTTEI 


i. 


SOUND. LETTER. 


A 


= 


ah. U 


E 


== 


ay. 


I 




ee. T 

In German. 

LETTERS. SOUND. 

AU = ow. 
EI = i in isle. 
IE — ee. 



778. In native words, every letter not silent is to be fully 
given. 

Vowels, when unaccented, are made shorter ; but their true 
sound, though given briefly, is not to be lost. 

1. Thus, the last syllable in maker has the sound of UE, ; the last in gov- 
ernor, that of OR. It is a corruption of the language to suffer all short 
and unaccented vowels to degenerate into the short sound of U. 

2. For pronouncing English words properly, the time of one accented 
syllable should, as the general rule, be made equal to that for two unac- 
cented. Thus, in the world Mihitary, the voice should dwell so long on 
the M and L, with the vowel I, in the first syllable, as to make its time 
equal to that of the next two syllables. 

TT9. In pronouncing vowels, faults are common. To avoid them, ob- 
serve : 

1. The English U is a Compound Yowel. Its parts should be dis- 
tinctly heard, as in use, duty, refuse. 

2. The sounds represented by 0, when really long, should be sounded 
long. Thus, the long sounds, 00, in fool, root, boot, and long 0, in boat, 
coat, goat, note, should not receive the sound of short U ; as, rut, but. 

3. The natural and primitive sound of A, in English, as in all lan- 
guages, is that of AH, as heard in father. It retains that sound un- 
less changed to A in at, by consonants following ; to A in fate, by a vowel 
following, or by usage, as A in maker ; or to AW, in awe, fall, by liquids 
or like sounds. When not forced from its native sound, it resumes it. 

4. Many say, erroneously, git, for get ; yis, for yes ; ketch, for catch. 



PRONUNCIATION. 349 

780. Among the consonants to be specially observed are C and G, 
and the sound of NG. 

Generally, and G are soft before E and I, and hard before A, 0, U. 
Ng must be fully sounded ; as, going, not goin\ For a more definite 
statement concerning C and G : 

1. In words from the Classic family — especially in those derived from 
the Latin through the French — both these letters are made to have the 
sounds, ES and JEE before the Head-Towels, E and I ; as, cent, city, gem, 
giant But they take the hard sounds, EG, EK, before Lip and Chest- 
Vowels, A, 0, U ; as, calculate, collect, curious, galley, govern, gust 

The general rule may be thus briefly stated : The letters C and G are 
made Continuants before the Head-Yowels, and Concludents before the 
others, for euphony. 

[Obs. — It was unquestionably a deviation from principle and analogy, 
to allow such usage to be applied to Greek words ; as, Macedonia, Lacedoz- 
mon, Geology, Geocentric, They should have been Makedonia, &c] 

2. In words from the Gothic through the Saxon, the same rule does 
not always apply to the letter G. Thus, we say get, give, and not jet, jive. 
The reason is, that in the Gothic family, the hard or concludent sound 
of G (as in egg) is uniformly given. Thus, the German name Bin-gen is 
not pronounced Binjen. 

181. Spelling has often changed pronunciation. Thus, of the words 
sounded Makedonia and Ksesar, we have Macedonia and Csesar, substi- 
tuting the sound of S for that of K. 

782. Syllabication must conform to sound, in order to preserve correct 
pronunciation. If we syllabicate civ-il-iz-a-tion in this manner, we pre- 
serve the right pronunciation ; if in this manner, civ-i-li-za-tion, we cor- 
rupt the sound of the second and third syllables. The proper sound of 
the third syllable is not that of I in isle, but of I in it 

183. For a third exercise, under the sixteenth attainment, read lists of 
words usually mispronounced, and speak them correctly ; as, fertle, for 
fertile; peopel, for people ; masculyne, for masculine; laff, for laugh; psam, 
for psalm; tu-may-tu, for tomato; Canydy, for Canada; Georgy, for 
Georgia. 



350 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER II. 

Orthography. 

184. Orthography treats of correct formation for words and letters, 
when used in written language. 

Letters in written language are in larger or smaller forms. The larger 
are called Capital Letters ; as, A, a. 

Orthography includes : 1. Handwriting ; 2. The use of Capitals ; 3. 
Syllabication; 4. Spelling. 

The seventeenth attainment is ability to write words correctly. 
785. The deficiency to be obviated is principally that of 
bad spelling. Subordinate deficiencies for correction, are il- 
legible or ungainly Chirography, the erroneous use of Capitals, 
and a wrong division of Syllables. 



Sec. 1. — Handwriting. 

?86. A good handwriting can and may be possessed by every person. 
The requirements are these : 1. No stiffness in the joints of the thumb, 
fingers, hand, or wrist ; 2. A proper posture of the body and head ; 3. A 
suitable holding of the pen or pencil ; 4. Preliminary practice on the com- 
mon movement in all writing, by the rapid formation of sweeping and 
continuous curves ; 5. The formation of the letters in continuous line 
which require a curve. The latter includes several particulars. Those 
should be (a) the formation of curved letters requiring the oval, first full 
as in o ; then broken as in c; partial as in e; modified and lengthened as 
in I. The same letter, as o for example, should be written continuously, 
on one line, without taking the pen from the paper, and gradually more 
rapidly till that letter can be formed. After the conquest of o, the next 
should be c, as requiring like formation, and then e, and then I. There 
should be (b) the formation of curves not oval, in the *, u, w, r, v, each 
taken alone; (c) the formation of curves of opposed formations, in #, 
m, n; (d) the formation of longer curves, in./ and /; (e) the interming- 
led curves, in s and z ; (f) combinations of large and small movements, 
in b, g, h, Jc, q, y. 



orthography: capitals. 351 

6. The formation of letters having straight lines, long or short, as a, d 
jp, t; 7. The formation of the capitals, beginning with those which have a 
stem, in writing and forming that common stem continuously, as the basis 
for the written capitals, B, D, F, H, K, L, F, F, S, T, and going on from 
these to the formation of all. 

These should be practised at least for a few minutes daily, till the de- 
sired acquisition is made. 



Sec. 2. — Use of Capitals. 

18*7. Capital letters, are used like accents, to distinguish what needs 
to be distinguished, viz. : 

1. For commencements ; (a) of a piece of writing ; (b) of a separate 
sentence ; (c) of a line of poetry ; (d) of a quotation.. 

2. For proper names and titles ; as (a) of the Deity ; (b) of men ; (c) of 
places ; (d) of books, and often of sciences ; (e) with Adjectives derived 
from the proper names of places ; as, American, English, Grecian, Ger- 
man; (/) for words that are the principal subjects of discourse; (g) in 
personifications. (By personification is meant, speaking to or of things, 
as persons. Thus: "Come, gentle Spring. 11 ) 

3. For the pronoun I, and the interjection, 0. 

788. The reason of the rules will be seen by neglect of the capitals 
where needed. 

"the old world has revealed to us the beginning and end of its strug- 
gles for liberty, greece, lovely greece." 

" the land of scholars, and the nurse of arms, where sister republics 
in fair procession chanted the praises of liberty and the gods, o, where and 
what is she ? i see her sons united at thermopylse, and marathon ; and 
the tide of her triumphs rolled back upon the hellespont. the man of 
macedonia did the work of destruction, rome, republican rome, where 
and what is she ? a mortal disease was upon her vitals before csesar had 
passed the rubicon ; and brutus did not restore her health by the deep- 
est probings of the senate-chamber, the roman people betrayed rome." 

"the atlantic and pacific oceans wash the american continent and 
touch two sides of the united states." 

i find the following sentiment in pope's essay on man : 
" say first, of god above or man below ; 
what can we reason, but from what we know ?" 

i read in thompson's seasons : 

" come gentle spring, ethereal mildness come." 

socrates used this maxim : " know thyself." 



352 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Correct the foregoing examples and state what rule is violated. 
Obs. — The tendency of modern usage in this language is to lessen the 
use of capitals. Formerly, every noun had a capital letter. 



Sec. 3. — Syllabication. 

789. Syllabication is the mode of dividing a word into its 
syllables. 

790. This division may be made by sound or seryse. 

791. If by sound the division is phonetical This is the common mode 
of syllabication. It gives the common rule. 

Divide the word, according to its separate Vowel-Sounds ; 
as, co-op-e-rate, a-e-ri-al, Cce-sar. 

1. As this rule is based on sound, the Consonants which modify a 
Vowel-Sound must be joined to it; as, ap-os-tol-i-cal, trav-el-ler, coun-sel-lor ; 
not a-post-o-li-cal, tra-ve-ler, couns-e-lor. 

2. Separate Vowel-Sounds must be separated in syllabication, as seen 
in the example above. 

3. Phonetic syllabication when erroneous corrupts spelling ; as, counse- 
lor, for counsellor ; when correct it proceeds directly from the principles of 
Phonology. Thus the study of sound prepares for syllabication by sound. 

792. If the syllabication is by sense the division of the word is Ety- 
mological In Derivatives, the radical syllable (having the Stem- Word), 
each prefix, and each suffix are separated. In Compounds, the sim- 
ple words are separated ; as, in-de-struct-i-bil-i-ty, out-run, black-en-er, 
harm-less, bright-ness, mis-under-stand-ing, hand-ivork, Intad-ache, rail-road. 

1. Some parts of a Compound or Derivative may need farther sylla- 
bication by sound ; as rosy-fingered — ro-sy-fing-ered. 

2. Etymological syllabication thus proceeds directly from Etymology. 
The formation of a word directs how to syllabicate. 

793. Both methods are used, but phonetic syllabication is the usual 
guide. 



Sec. 4. — Spelling. 



794. The Spelling of English words is guided by two sim- 
ple principles, in every word : 



orthography:. SPELLING. 353 

1. Preserve its Derivation ; 

2. Preserve its Sound. 

Language passes from a previous to a following generation. The aim 
of the spelling is to preserve those two essential things, which the public 
might otherwise lose. 

Those who live, need to be told by the spelling whence the word 
came, and how the word should be sounded. All English spelling is con- 
formed to these principles with a few exceptions. 

795. If spelling be generally regarded as not so simple, it is because 
the formation of English words from their sources has not been first 
studied. 

For example, hough and plough are spelt with gh, to preserve the Der- 
ivation, to show the Etymology. They are derived from the Gothic fam- 
ily, through the Saxon, and the primitive words all have a guttural con- 
sonant at the end. Thus Saxon, ploge, German, pflug, for plough ; and 
Saxon, bog, or bogh, from bugan, for bough. The spelling plow is a cor- 
ruption to be arrested. Use, is spelt with an e, to direct the sound. E 
is not obtained by etymology, since the primitive Latin word is utor, 
wsus. But if we left off the e, people would give it the sound of us. 
So, traveller, had I doubled, to prevent the sound of trav-e-ler. Waggon 
had a double g, to avoid the sound of way-gon. 

196. These two principles are applicable : 1. To Stem- 
Words. 2. To Prefixes and Suffixes. 3. To the combination 
of Stem-Words with both. They are considered : 1. In the 
Gothic family ; 2. In the Grasco-Latin ; 3. In miscellaneous 
sources. 

1. Spelling op Words from the Gothic Family. 
(1.) Stem-Words. 

1. Stem-Words drawn from the Saxon conform as nearly as possible 
to the spelling of the primitive word. An example has already been 
given in the words bough and plough. To see a reason for the spelling, 
find the source, in a good dictionary. 

2. It is a rule in the Gothic family still seen in German, that a short 
vowel, placed before a consonant, doubles that consonant. 

(a.) This rule has been retained for words ending with the Continuants 
F, L, and S. 



354 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hence primitive words, monosyllabic, ending in F, L, or S, preceded by 
a single vowel-sound, double the final consonant ; as, puff, gruff, stuff, 
doff, scoff, stiff, cliff, skiff, staff, gaff; skull, dull, loll, doll, still, drill, well, 
swell, shall, mall, ell, cell; class, glass, brass, tress, guess, hiss, kiss, miss, 
loss, moss, cross, buss, truss, muss, fuss. 

These doubled terminations keep the alphabetic sound of F, L, and S. 
But when F changes to its pectoral V, and S to its pectoral Z, then the 
second principle regarding sound comes in, and we write : of, as, is, has, 
was, his. 

Exceptions are : if, yes, this, us, thus, gas. 

A reason for these exceptions can be found in the etymology of the 
words. Whoever will consult a good dictionary will find that the vowels 
in the primitive words were long, and that the apparent irregularity is 
but a conformity to Gothic rule. 

(b.) The doubling is also seen in butt, to distinguish it from the con- 
junction, but; in ebb, egg, inn (to distinguish it from in, the preposition); 
and in odd, purr. The reasons for the spelling will be seen by reference 
to the etymology in the dictionary ; or by the principle of preserving 
the sound. 

(c.) In other cases the final consonant of monosyllabic Stem-Words is 
not doubled. 

3. Long Vowel- Sounds are represented in words from the Gothic family 
through the Saxon : 

(a.) By adding one or more Yowels ; as, moon, ooze, through, coal, boat, 
door, floor, pour, seed, read, pair, bear, pear, heart, sound, oil, pain, 
main : 

(5.) By adding one of the Semi- Yowels ; as, 

1. Brew, drew, low, crow, now, few. (W.) 

2. Key, quay, say, boy, buoy, day, they. (Y.) 

3. Ah, hah, oh. (H.) : 

(c.) By placing E after the following consonants (just as in move, prove, 
and others from the Latin) ; bore, tore, sore, hole, mete, bare, pare, tube, 
use, hate, late. 

(2.) The Affixes. 

191. The Affixes before the Stem- Words are Prefixes. Those from the 
Gothic are few in number, and their spelling must be learned by observa- 
tion. They are : a, be, en, fore^ in, mis, out, over, un, under, with. 

Observe that miss, as a verb, is spelled with a double S, but, as a pre- 
fix, with a single S ; as, "I shall miss in counting." "I shall miscount." 



orthography: spelling. 355 

The Affixes after the Stem- Word are Suffixes. These are, as we have 
eeen, for Verbs, en, ish ; for Adverbs, ly, ward ; for Adjectives, en, ful, 
ish, less, like, ly, some, ing, ed, ward, y ; for Nouns of the Thing, dom, 
hood, ness, ship, th, ing; for Nouns of the Person, er, ster, ard; the Dimin- 
utives, ling, kin, ock ; and the Feminines, ess, ine. 

The spelling is to be learned by observation. 

Observe that full, as an adjective, is spelled with a double, but as a 
suffix, with a single L; as, "a, full measure," mirthful, beauti/wZ. 

(3.) Combinations of Stem- Words with Prefixes and Suffixes. 

*T98. The rule of the language is a very simple one. 

In combining Stem- Words with Prefixes and Suffixes, pre- 
serve the original spelling of each, unless a modification is re- 
quired for sound. 

This rule involves the two fundamental principles. It requires the 
preservation of the original spelling, so that the elements of the word 
may be presented to the eye, in all cases, except where necessity, for 
the sake of sound, compels a deviation; as, mis-under-STAND-ing ; 
MIRTH-ful-ness. 

[Obs. — In putting en before B, as in embalm, the change is for euphony.] 

On this rule, many innovations have been made by usage, and some 
through ignorance. But while those innovations and changes which are 
fixed should be respected, every new one should be opposed ; and where usage 
is doubtful, the scale should always be inclined on the side of the general and 
simple rule. 

*799. Many of the special rules for spelling, which have been thought 
arbitrary and irregular, are in reality conformed to the rule given, or to 
the more general law already mentioned, for short vowels with double 
consonants, in the Gothic family. 

Special Rules for Spelling. 

1. The final Y of a primitive word, preceded by a consonant, is changed 
to I, before the suffixes, except before ing. This is necessary for the 
sound ; as, fly, flies. Did we add S to Y, it would read flys, and might 
be sounded fliss. But the long vowel must be preserved. If Y were 
not kept before ing, there would be two I's; as, fli-ing. 

It follows, that if a vowel precede Y, no change should be made, 



356 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

but the original rule followed; as, way, ways; money, moneys; valley, 
valleys. 

Laid, paid, said, belong to irregular verbs. The change of T to AI — as 
lay, laid — is required by the laws of derivation. 

2. A Stem- Word, with a short vowel before a single consonant, dou- 
bles that consonant when it takes a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, 
rob, robber; set, setting; cut, cutting ; strip, stripping, stripped. 

This is, in reality, but the Gothic rule, which requires in a primitive 
word a doubled letter after a short vowel. 

It follows, that long vowels, doubled vowels, diphthongs and triph- 
thongs do not double the consonant ; because in the Gothic family the 
rule is, that long vowel-sounds shall not do so. 

"We write, therefore, fool, foolish ; boil, boiling, boiler. 

Principles thus show why the general instinct of the people who 
speak the English language has preserved the proper spelling, notwith- 
standing that innovators have been clamoring for a change, in words 
where the Stem- Word ends in L, with a short vowel. The principlos 
of the language require the L to be doubled ; 1st, for the sound ; 2d, for 
conformity to the Gothic rule for short vowels. 

Ravel, from the Danish, forms ravelled — not raveled. 

Shrivel, from the Saxon, forms shrivelled, shrivelling. So it is with 
many more. 



II. Spelling of Words from the Gr^co-Latin Family. 

800. Words derived from the Grseco-Latin family will be 
found to exemplify the same rules which belong to native 
words. 

The spelling is so made as to preserve a trace of the derivation and yet 
to indicate the true sound. 

1. Generally, where two or more vowels are together in the 
spelling of a radical syllable, one, usually the first, is for the 
sound, and one, usually the last, is for the derivation. 

For example, the English word chief, is derived from the Latin, through 
the French word chef. But if we spell it in the same way, we shall 
represent a wrong sound, since the sound given in pronunciation is a 
long vowel, that of EE, and the spelling chef, would indicate the sound 
of E in et. We therefore insert the vowel I, and since it is for sound, 
put it first, and thus form the established spelling, chief. 



orthography: spelling. 357 

The English word receive, is derived from the Latin, recipio, through 
the French, recevoir. The sound in English is re-seev. How shall we 
represent that sound and yet keep the trace of the derivation ? In ihe 
first syllable we have no difficulty. Be, gives both sound and etymology. 
In the second syllable, we leave, i, for derivation, from reczpio : we place 
before it e, for the sound. Two vowels indicate a long sound. But as 
the long sound might be mistaken for long i } we place another vowel 
after the consonant, v. We thus spell the word receive. The Labial, Y, 
indicates the derivation from P in recipio, since they are of the same 
class ; and also indicates the sound. After the same analogy, we spell 
conceive, deceive, perceive. 

The same rule is seen in appear. Of the two vowels e, a, the first is 
for sound, the second for derivation from Latin, par-eo. 

The English word conduce, is derived from the Latin, con, duco. The 
sound is that of a long vowel. One mode of representing a long vowel- 
sound is, by placing e, after the following consonant. By spelling the 
second syllable d, u, c, e, we indicate the long vowel-sound, as heard in 
duce. But if we spelled the word conduc, we should preserve the deriva- 
tion, but mislead in pronunciation. By spelling the word conduce, we 
preserve both etymology and sound. After the same analogy, we spell 
db, ad, de, e, in, intro, pro, re, se, sub, and tra, duce. 

2. Generally the same rules are applied to foreign as to native words : 
thus, 

(1.) The spelling of the primitive is preserved as nearly as the sound 
will allow ; as, re-duce. 

(2.) Short vowel-sounds double the following consonant ; as, counseZZor. 

(3.) Long vowel-sounds are represented by adding (a) vowels, (b) 
semi-vowels, (c) the vowel e after the following consonant. "Where 
there is an added vowel, the two will indicate the long sound, and one, 
usually the last, will show the derivation, as has been said. 

Thus, we spell appear, from pareo, with two vowels; betray, from 
traho, with a semi-vowel ; ad-duce, from duco, with e after the following 
consonant. 

(4.) In the combination of Stem-Words with Prefixes, and Suffixes, 
we preserve the original spelling of each unless a modification is re- 
quired for sound; Thus, the Stem- Word act, from Latin, ago, aetwwz, 
is to take the prefix, re, and the suffix, ion. We therefore simply spell 
the word, re-act-ion. 

(5.) Euphonic letters are introduced ; as, 0, in Geography. 

The spelling of prefixes and suffixes must be learned by observation, 
and should be well fixed in the memory. 



358 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The same conformity to the rules for spelling Native Words (those 
from the Gothic family) will be found in the other particulars mentioned 
under that head. 

801. The eighteenth attainment in language consists in ability to spell the 
ivords of the language properly. 

Eor an exercise correct the spelling in the following words, and state 
what principle is followed: 

Cheefly, receve, deseev, deeduse, traydewse, inntrowdoose, aduse, con- 
fur, deephur, preefur, preffurrens, counselur, cowncelor, counselor, 
presyure, presyon, depresing. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



DIVIS ION IV. 



PROSODY. 



DIVISION IV. 



PROSODY. 

802. After the forms of representation for words, follow those for Sentences. Thus 
arises the fourth division of Grammar. 

The fourth division of Grammar is called Prosody. It treats 
of the representation of thought in correct forms in Sentences. 

803. The word Sentence, as here used, includes the Sentence in Anal- 
ysis, and the Sentence in Expression. 

804. The Sentence in Analysis, is assertion, by that combination of 
words which was considered under Universal Grammar (30. 20), formed 
syntactically by the union of one Yerb with one Subject ; formed logic- 
ally by the union of a Predicate with a Subject, though a Copula. 

A Simple Sentence by Analysis, is strictly a unit of speech for the mind. 

805. The Sentence in Expression is a combination of words 
so separated as to form a unit of speech for (he eye or ear. 

For the eye, the separation is made in written language by a capital 
letter at the beginning, and a dot at the end, with a small space before 
and after it, as seen in this very sentence. For the ear, the separation 
is made by what is called the falling of the voice at the end, with a slight 
interval of silence, called a pause, before and after it. A Sentence, one in* 
the Expression may include many in Analysis, as was seen abundantly in 
Universal Grammar, and under Syntax. (Ill, 119.) 

806. The Sentence in Expression, as the unit of speech, re- 
ceives combination and division. 

80 7. The combination of Sentences produces in written language, the 
paragraph or head of discourse ; the section; the chapter ; the part; the 
booh or volume. 

808. The divisions of a Sentence form its parts. Such are members, 
clauses, phrases. (112.) An additional division exists in poetry; that 
16 



362 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

into measured lines. Without the latter division, discourse is called prose 
Poetry may be spoken with music, and thus form song. 

809. The varied forms in which thought and feeling may be 
represented in Sentences, are found more fully for the eye in 
poetry than in prose, and for the ear in singing than in com- 
mon speaking. 

810. Hence models and rules for the best modes of expres- 
sion both in writing and speaking, are sought in poetry and 
music. In all nations, prose composition is guided from im- 
perfect to perfect forms, by poetry.* 

811. The term Prosody, expresses this fact. It is derived 
from the Greek (npog (hdrj), and means literally to, or for song, 

812. Sentential forms, the subject regarded by- Prosody, are for the 
ear, the eye, for both, or through both, for a certain impression on the 
mind. 

Hence arise its divisions. 

813. Sentential forms, satisfactory. 

For the ear, eye, and mind, belong to Figures ; 
For the ear and eye, " " Rhythm ; 

For the ear, " " Elocution ; 

For the eye, " " Punctuation. 

814. Method. — Rhythm, by including versification, and the mechanism 
of poetry, is a natural introduction to all the others. It prepares directly 
for Figures ; Figures for Elocution ; Elocution for Punctuation. 

Punctuation cannot be understood without the pauses are known 
which are required by Elocution; nor Elocution, without the kinds of 
Sentences, produced by Figures ; nor Figures, without Poetic Composition 
from which they are drawn ; nor this last without Rhythm which is its 
basis. Accordingly, the following will be the order: 1st, Rhythm; 
2d, Figures; 3d, Elocution; 4th, Punctuation. 

815. The subject treated of in Ehythm, is the Sentence, as 
measured into divisions distinct and proportioned. 

The subject in Figures, is the Sentence, as varied for certain 
impressions on the mind. 

* Isocrates, by applying this principle led Greek prose to its highest excellence. 



prosody: division. 363 

The subject in Elocution, is the Sentence, as uttered in 
language spoken. 

The subject in Punctuation, is the Sentence, as marked in 
language written. 

816. These subjects will prepare for other -attainments in language. 
The first and second will teach how to mould sentences in the mind, the 
others to speak and mark them. 



364 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER I. 

Rhythm. 

817. The word Bhythm is from the Greek, and appears to be an old 
compound (603. Obs. II.), formed originally from two words (QSG), 
apiOfiog), one signifying motion^ and the other number. Its sense by 
etymology is motion numbered. 

The explanation from the thing agrees with that from the word. 

818. Ehythm, in its most general sense, is proportion ap- 
plied to distinguished points and intervals in any motion. It 
is the timing of motion by number, and produces correspon- 
dence between parts of motion and parts of time. 

For example, in the motion of walking, the distinguished points are 
the steps, the instants of the contact of the foot with the ground. The 
intervals of the motion are between step and step. In marching by 
music the steps are rhythmical, because timed. In common walking 
made now fast, and now slow, the movement, being irregular, is not 
timed, and hence not rhythmical. Dancing is another example of 
motion timed. 

So in the motion of striking, the beats on the drum in martial music 
are rhythmical, but not the irregular blows of a child on the same in- 
strument. In this case the distinguished points are the beats, and the 
intervals are between beat and beat. 

819. Speaking is a motion of the breath from the will among the 
vocal organs (418), forming words in successive syllables. The dis- 
tinguished points in the motion are the distinguished syllables. A 
syllable is distinguished, as has been shown, by being louder or longer 
than others. If louder, there is accent ; if longer, quantity. Some lan- 
guages use the one mode, and some the other. This language (English), 
uses accent. 

820. The intervals in speaking a sentence lie between one distinguished 
syllable and another, and in English, between accent and accent j as, 

" How sleep the brave who sink to rest, 
"With all their country's wishes blessed." 



prosody: rhythm. 365 

From the beginning of the accented syllable in the word country, to 
that in the word wishes, is an interval. 

821. In a word of two or more syllables, apart from the sentence, there 
are not strictly intervals, but the syllables before or after the accented 
syllable are so regarded for convenience ; as, superincumbent, beautifully. 

822. Rhythm in Grammar is proportion applied in human 
speech to the distinguished syllables of words in sentences, 
and to the intervals between them. 

Thus in the example just given, every second syllable is accented. 
The movement is regular and timed, and is, therefore, rhythmical. 

823. Monosyllables, apart from the sentence have no accent, but in a 
sentence, those which are naturally spoken with more stress of the 
voice become accented. They are louder than the others, and others as 
compared with them softer. This forms accent. (146.) Thus in the 
example, sleep, brave, sink, rest, all, blessed, receive more stress, than the 
formative parts of speech, how, the, who, to, with, their. They take the 
accent. 

824. The intervals are named feet. The word is used because of the 
analogy between the motion of the voice in speaking, and that of the 
body in walking ; between the stress of the voice in the distinguished 
syllable, and the touch of the foot in the step. 

825. Feet are accordingly the smaller divisions of rhymth- 
ical speech. 

826. The classes of feet depend on the number of the syllables; the 
subdivisions of those classes on the accentuation. 

Feet are classified, as disyllabic, trisyllabic, tetrasyllable* and thus con- 
tinously, as they contain two, three, four, and more syllables. 

827. The classes of feet are subdivided according to the position of 
the accented syllable, as compared with the others. Thus, if in a foot 
of two syllables (disyllabic) the accent be on the first, that foot is named 
Trochee ; as, under, branches. If the accent be on the last, the name is 
Iambus; as, repose, unblessed. 

828. Instead of all the foreign names, given to these feet, 
they are more easily represented by simply nsing the two 
letters L, and S. Loud, or long, will be indicated by L, and 
thus also the distinguished syllable in any language. Soft, or 

* English compounds are two-syllabled, three-syllabled, four-syllabled. 



366 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

short, will be indicated by S, and thus also the»undistmguished 
syllable. 

The same signs will then apply in the English, where the distinction 
is by accent, and in the classic and other languages, where it is by 
quantity. Such a method of naming the feet gives very great conveni 
ence. A number can be put before a letter to save repetition ; as, 
1, s, s, s = 1, 3 s. 

829. In the examples from English, L will represent the accented 
syllable, and S the unaccented. All the feet which are or can be used, are 
indicated by the permutations and combinations of these two letters. A few 
of the common names will be given. 

In an illustrating word the mark of accent will be placed over the 
accented syllable. 

830. Disyllabic Feet. 

1st. s, 1, called an Iambus ; as, repose. 
2d. 1, s, " a Trochee; as, lovely. 
3d. \ l t " a Spondee ; as, waves roll. 
4th. s, s, " a Pyrrhic ; as, in his {light) 

Trisyllabic Feet 

1st. 1, s, s, called a Dactyl ; as, glorious. 
2d. s, s, 1, " an Anapaest; as, unbeloved. 
3d. s, 1, s, " an Amphibrach ; as, believing. 
4th. s, s, s, " a Tribrach; as, (won)derfully. 
The other combinations — 1, 1, 1 ; 1, 1, s ; 1, s, 1 ; s, 1, 1 — can be easily 
made, and they have names (as Molossus), which need not be enumerated 

Tetrasyllabic Feet 

1st. 1, s, s, s (or 1, 3 s), called a Paeon 1st ; as, beaut fully. 

2d. s, s, s, 1 (3 s, 1), " " 4th; as, superinduce. 

, The other combinations by fours can be easily made, but their names 
need no enumeration here. A pentasyllable foot would be 1, s, s, s, s. 

831. The feet to be fixed in the memory are the Iambus = s, 1; 
the Trochee = 1, s ; the Dactyl = 1, s, s ; the Anapaest = s, s, 1 ; the 
Paeon = 1, s, s, s, or s, s, s, 1. 

832. Words, apart from the sentence, contain these feet. 

Each of the Correspondent Derivatives under the four material parts 
of speech has the same or similar feet. 

(a.) Thus, a derived Adjective, with a Suffix, taking accent as it does 



rhythm: in derived words. 367 

on the Stem-Word, but never on the Suffix, will always end with an un- 
accented syllable ; and hence with 1, s, (Trochee) ; or 1, s, s, (Dactyl) ; or 
1, s, s, s, (Paeon 1st) ; as, golden, beautiful, spiritual. A present Participle 
must have like terminations ; as, reading, reddening, beautifying. 

(b.) A derived Adverb, for a like reason, will end with 1, s ; 1, s, s ; 
1, s, s, s ; or 1, s, s, s, s — that is, with the Trochee, or the Dactyl, or that 
one of the four-syllabled or five-syllabled feet which has only the first 
accented; as, blackly, wondrously, beautifully, spiritually. 

(c.) An Adverb derived from an Adjective adds one unaccented sylla- 
ble to the Adjective, and thus forms a foot of the next grade to that 
of the Adjective. 

(d.) Nouns of Person or Thing having a Suffix will, for like reason, 
form similar endings and feet, since the Suffix does not receive the ac- 
cent ; as, maker, governor, persecutor, brightness, blessedness, laudableness, 
reasonableness. 

Such Nouns add at least one unaccented syllable to the word from 
which the derivation is made. 

(e.) Yerbs with a Suffix will, for like reason, form similar endings and 
feet ; as, harden, glorify, sensualize, spiritualize. In all these are Trochees, 
or Dactyls, or the 1st Paeon. All have feet ending with unaccented syl- 
lables. 

[Obs. — The tendency of the language to the Trochee, the Dactyl, and 
the feet which end in unaccented syllables, is thus evident. In English, 
the foot which prevails in conversation is the Trochee ; in descriptive 
style, the Dactyl; in finished rhetorical composition, the tetrasyllable 
foot, called the 1st Pason.] 

(/.) Yerbs which are Branch- Words, having one or more Prefixes, 
but no Suffix, form s, 1, (the Iambus) ; or s, s, 1, (the Anapaest) ; or s, s, s, 1, 
the 2d Paeon; as, reduce, intervene, superinduce. 

833. One distinguished syllable in any language is regarded 
as equal in time to two undistinguished syllables. 

This seems to be a law of nature for all languages. 
It directs, as has been stated, to the best utterance of English words, 
as well as to rhythm. 

834. Feet thus present different proportions. Of disyllabic feet, s, 1. 
and 1, s, (the Iambus and Trochee) are 1 : 2, 2 : 1 ; 1, 1, (the Spondee), 2 : 2. 
Of trisyllabic feet, 1, s, s, and s, s, 1, (the Dactyl and Anapaest) are 2:2. 
Of tetrasyllable feet, 1, s, s, s, and s, s, s, 1, (the 1st and 4th Paeon) 
are 2 : 3. 

835. Feet with the proportions of two to one, or of two to two, are 



368 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

used in poetry, though not limited to poetry. Feet with the proportion 
of two to three are used in rhythmical prose, and are called Rhetorical 
Feet. These feet, however, may be transferred to poetry. . 

This fact in language can be expressed without the use of numbers, in 
this yet more simple manner. Poetry and common speech place the ac- 
cents nearer ; rhetorical composition, farther apart. 

It must be understood, that in each kind there is only predominance 
of its appropriate feet, but not strict limitation. Poetry intermingles the 
rhetorical feet with its own ; rhetoric, the poetic ; common speech, both. 

838. Rhythm, accordingly, is poetic or non-poetic. It is 
poetic when it uses poetic feet, with uniform divisions. It is 
non-poetic when it does not use poetic feet, nor uniform di- 
visions. 

The non-poetic is usually called Rhetorical Rhythm. It is found in 
the more animated passages of great orators and cultivated writers, as 
Demosthenes, Cicero, Burke, Erskine, Brougham, Gibbon, Alison, Mac- 
aulay, Irving, Everett. Among American writers, the two latter form 
periods of appropriate harmony. 

Poetic Rhythm forms Yerse. 



Sec. 1. — Poetic Rhythm. 
Versification. 
83 1. Versification is making sentences in verse. 

838. Verse is poetic rhythm, formed by separating rhythmi- 
cal speech into uniform divisions, called lines, which contain 
a predominance of poetic feet. 

839. A poetic line, regarded by itself, contains a definite number of 
syllables or accents, fixed by a certain order ; as, 

"Now far he sweeps where scarce a summer smiles*" 
This is a poetic line of ten syllables, with five accents, each accent being 
placed on the even syllables. The foot thus formed is s, 1, (Iambus). 

840. A poetic line in composition has a line or lines reciprocating with 
it, and in syllables or accents, equal to it ; as, 

" Now far he sweeps where scarce a summer smiles, 
On Behring's rocks or Greenland's naked isles." 
The second line is equal in the number of its syllables to the first, and in 



rhythm: in poetry. 369 

this instance, is equal in its accents. It reciprocates, not only by that 
equality, but in this case by similar sounds in the last words, smiles and 
isles. 

841. By reciprocation in language is meant correspondence between 
two portions — such that the first causes anticipation of the second, and 
the second, when given, refers the mind back to the first. It applies to 
all poetry in all nations, since every kind of poetry has the parallel struc- 
ture, but beyond poetry, in the prose sentence, and throughout language. 
In poetry, words having like sounds, called rhymes, form only one mode 
of reciprocation. 

842. The equality may be in the accents in a line, and not in the sylla- 
bles, as in the following examples. 

In the following extracts from Scott and Coleridge, the accents are 
four in each line. The syllables in each line vary in number. The places 
of the accents also vary, and thus the feet. Accent is placed also on 
some particles. 

" They quitted not their harness bright, 
Neither by day, nor yet by night ; 
They lay down to rest 
With corselet laced, 
Pillowed on buckler cold and hard ; 
They carved at the meal 
With gloves of steel, 
And they drank the red wine through the helmet barred." 

[Scott. 
11 They crossed the moat, and Christabel 
Took the key that fitted well 
The gate that was ironed within and without, 
Where an army in battle-array had marched out." 

[Coleridge. 
In the following examples are six accents, at least, in every fine, while 
the syllables in different lines vary in number : 

" Where is the thatch-roofed village, the home of Acadian farmers — 
Men whose lives glided on like rivers that water the woodlands, 
Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of heaven ?" 

[Longfellow. 
" Down did he go from the crags of Olympus with rage in his spirit, 
Bearing his bow on his shoulder, together with well-cover'd quiver." 

[Homer, Book I, 1. 44, 45. 
Such lines form what is called the Classic Hexameter, because used 
by the Greek and Latin poets. 
16* 



370 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is thus seen that equality may be in syllables or accents. 

843. Yerse may be with or without rhyme. Rhyme is similarity of 
sound in the last syllable or syllables of words ; as, smiles, isles ; bright, 
night; hard, barred; meal, steel ; without, out — in the examples. 

Rhyme is one mode of reciprocation. Yerse with rhyme places such 
rhyming words at the end of the lines. But rhyme may also be inserted 
within the lines, in addition to those at the end, as in sportive verse : 
"And dashing, and flashing, and splashing, and clashing, 
All at once, and all o'er, with a mighty uproar, 
In this way, the water comes down at Lodore." [Southey. 
Yerse without rhyme is seen in the examples already given of 
Classic Hexameter. 

844. Blank verse in English poetry is verse without rhyme, in lines 
each of ten syllables, with the number of accents varying, according to 
the rhythm required ; as, with eight accents : 

" Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death." 

[Milton. 
With six accents, and five : 

" So eagerly the fiend, 

O'er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, 
With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, 
And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies." [Milton. 
With four accents, or three : 

" Thither he flies, 

Undaunted, to meet there whatever power 
Or spirit of the nethermost abyss 

Might in that noise reside: " [Milton. 

In these lines of blank verse the syllables are ten in number, while 
the accents vary, though ever subject to laws of rhythm. 

845. Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter in successive 
words; as, u An Austrian army awfully arrayed." It is a mode of recip- 
rocation. 

846. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines taken together. A 
Triplet consists of three lines rhyming together. 

847. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or lines, varying in 
number, and making a regular division of a poem or song. Thus, 
"Spenser's Faerie Queene " and "Byron's Childe Harold" are written in 
what is called the Spenserian stanza — the name being from the poet 
Spenser. The lines are in number nine, each of ten syllables, but the 
last, which has twelve. The 1st and 3d lines rhyme together; the 2d, 
4th, 5 th, and 7th; and the 6th, 8th, and 9th; as, 



versification: the sonnet. 371 

"Ah, then and there were hurryings to and fro,* 
And gath'ring tears, and tremblings of distress, 
And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago, 
Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness ; 
And there were sudden partings, such as press 
The life from out young hearts, and choking sighs 
"Which ne'er might be repeated. Who could guess, 
If ever more should meet those mutual eyes, 
Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise ?" 

[Byron. 
848. A Sonnet is a short poem of fourteen lines on some one subject. 
The lines have ten syllables, and are divided, when regular, into stanzas, 
two of four lines in each, -and two of three in each, but with the ar- 
rangement of the rhymes not always similar. Among English authors, 
Milton and Wordsworth excel in the Sonnet. 

On the Departure of Sir Walter Scott from Abbotsford. foe 

Naples.* 

"A trouble not of clouds, nor weeping rain, 

Nor of the setting sun's pathetic light 

Engendered, hangs o'er Eildon's triple height ; 
Spirits of power assembled there complain 
For kindred power departing from their sight ; 

While Tweed, best pleased in chanting a blithe strain, 

Saddens his voice again, and yet again. 
Lift up your hearts, ye mourners ! for the might 
Of the whole world's good wishes with him goes ; 

Blessings and prayers in nobler retinue, 
Than sceptred king, or laurelled conq'ror knows, 

Follow this wondrous potentate. Be true, 
Ye winds of Ocean, and the midland Sea, 
Wafting your charge to soft Parthenope I" 

[Wordsworth. 

The Knell for a Young Person.* 
" Not e'en thy heavenly and harmonious swell, 
Calling to Sabbath worship, with a sound, 
From tower to tower reverberated round, 
Can with my spirit harmonize so well, 
As that sad requiem, melancholy bell, 

* Examples are given, which can be used in parsing. 



372 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Which with unvaried cadence stern and dull, 

Tolls for the burial of the beautiful 1 
There is a potent and a thrilling spell, 
In every solitary stroke, to start 
Long-cherished thoughts from mem'ry's inmost cell 

And deep affections ; while each warning tone 
That rests 'mid solemn pauses far apart, 

Like drops of water dripping on a stone 
Cheerless, and ceaseless, wears into the heart." 

[Croswell. 

Kinds op Poetry. 

849. Full explanation of the different kinds of poetry belongs to an- 
other part of the course. 

For so much of the mechanism of poetry as must be taken by Gram- 
mar, the following explanation is sufficient. 

Poetry is imitation. It imitates by language representing. Its classes 
are determined by the things represented, and by the* mode of represent- 
ing. The things are actions, passions, objects ; great, beautiful, or the 
reverse. The mode of representation is from the poet directly, or through 
others ; if through others, by music, or by speech and action, as in the 
theatre. 

Epic poetry has for its subject great actions, expressed by the poet di- 
rectly : Tragedy, great passions, presented indirectly by others in speech 
and action : Comedy, little and ludicrous characters and actions expressed, 
as in Tragedy : Satire, the same expressed by the poet : Lyric poetry, per- 
sonal emotions, expressed by the poet with music : Descriptive poetry, 
beautiful and sublime objects, expressed by him directly : Didactic, great 
principles for conduct, expressed by him directly. 

Lyric poetry may express great emotions, and thus form the Ode ; 
gentle, and thus the Song ; plaintive, and thus the Elegy. 

An example of the Epic, is Milton's Paradise Lost; of Tragedy, Shakes- 
peare's Macbeth; of Comedy, Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer; of Satire, 
Pope's Satires ; of the Ode, Dry den's Alexander's Feast; of the Elegy, 
Gh'ay's Elegy in a Country Church-yard; of Descriptive poetry, Thomp- 
son's Seasons ; of Didactic, Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination. The 
Song needs no example. 

Metre. 

850. Metre is the arrangement of a certain number of feet 
in a poetic line. 

851. According to the number of the feet in the line, is the numbering 



versification: iambic verse. 373 

for the metre in that line. Thus, a line of one foot i3 called Mbnometer ; 
of two, Dimeter; of three, Trimeter; of four, Tetrameter; of five, Penta- 
meter; of six, Hexameter; of seven, HeptameUr* If the plain English 
compound words were used, the meaning would be at once in the mind, 
as single footed line, etc. 

Thus the Spenserian stanza has eight Pentameter lines, and one Hex- 
ameter (in plain English, eight five-footed lines, and one six-footed line). 

852. The feet used in poetry are mostly Disyllabic and 
Trisyllabic. The Tetrasyllable feet belong to rhetorical 
rhythm, and, when used in poetry, are to be regarded as 
transplanted. 

853. Of Disyllabic feet, the principal used in poetry, are s, 1, and 1, s, 
(the Iambus, and the Trochee). 

Of Trisyllabic feet, 1, s, s, and s, s, 1, (the Dactyl, and Anapaest). 

854. In verse, with lines equal in the number of syllables, four princi- 
pal kinds are thus produced : Iambic verse, Trochaic, Dactylic, Anapaes- 
tic (s, 1- verse ; 1, s ; 1, s, s ; s, s, 1). 

855. Each kind of verse may have lines containing from one to eight 

feet. The extreme numbers are unusual, and run into the character of 

prose. 

1. Iambic Terse. 

856. A line of strictly Iambic verse, with an Iambus in each foot, has 
every second syllable from the beginning accented. 



Foot 1st. 2d. 


3d. 


4th. 
7 feet. 


5th. 6th. Tth. 


For cold | and stiff, 


| and still 


| are th6y [ 
6 feet. 


who wrought | thy walls ( annoy. 


Thy realm | forev 


j er lasts 


j thy own j 
5 feet. 


Messi | ah reigns. 


From rank | to rank 


| your vol 


| leyed thiin | 
4 feet. 


der fi6w. 


How sleep | the brave 


J who sink 


| to rest. 
3 feet. 




He still | rebuilds 


| thy span, 






Who first | spoke p6ace 


| to man. 






With rav J ished 6ars 




2 feet. 




The mon | arch hears. 
They came 




1 foot. 




In flame. 









*The correspondent English compounds would be single-footed, two-footed, three, 
four, five, six^ seven-footed. 



374 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Of all these, that which is numbered five, has become classic in English, forming 
Heroic verse. 

2. Trochaic Yerse. 

857. Aline of strictly Trochaic verse, with a Trochee in each foot, 
has an accent on the first syllable, the third, fifth, and all the odd sylla- 
bles: as, 

" Under | snow en | cumbered | branches." 
"He with | viny | crown ad | vancing." 
Trochaic lines may have from one to eight feet. The middle numbers 
are more common ; as, of four feet : 

" Lord, with | glowing | heart I | praise thee !" 

3. Dactylic Yerse. 

858. A line of strictly Dactylic verse, with a Dactyl in each foot, 
has an accent on the first syllable of the line, on the fourth, the seventh, 
and each third syllable to the end. A Dactylic verse seldom ends with 
a Dactyl, but usually with a Trochee ; as, 

" Solemnly | answered the | sea, and it | mingled its | roar with the | 

dirges." 
Dactylic lines may be in any of the metres, with one foot, or two, 
three, four, five, or six. There may be seven or eight feet. But beyond 
six, the number of the syllables becomes so great that the composition 
assumes the character of rhythmical prose. Thus, two and three feet 
are musical : 

"Bird of the | wilderness, 
Blithesome and | cumberless, 
Sweet be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea." 
But eight feet would become prosaic ; as, 

"Nimrod, the | hunter, was | mighty in | chasing, and | famed as the | 
ruler of | cities of | yore." 

4. Anapaestic Yerse. 

859. A fine of strictly Anapaestic verse, with an Anapaest in each 
foot, has the accent on every third syllable ; as, 

" O'er the land | of the free, | and the home | of the brave." 
" That would glad | ly be bride | to the young | Lochinvar." 
" At the close | of the day | when the ham | let is still." 



versification: pauses, 375 

The same remarks apply to this verse as the others. Though it is 
possible to frame lines of eight feet, or of one, they are not common, 
and in the extremes, the poetic character lessens, even if rhyme be 
employed. 

860. Such is verse when limited strictly to certain feet. Strict limita- 
tion is more needful when verse is written to be sung. But few poems, 
especially those written to be read, are thus uniform. Too much 
uniformity would cause monotony, and injure expressiveness. For ex- 
ample, in Iambic Pentameter, the first line of the following couplet has 
s, 1 (an Iambus) in each foot, but in the second line, 1, 1 (a Spondee) in 
the second foot:* 

11 And bear | across | the waves* | tumult | uous roar, 
The wolfs | long howl | from Oo | nalas | ka's shore."* 

[Campbell. 

In Anapaestic Tetrameter, the first line in the ensuing couplet has 
only s, s, 1 (Anapassts) in every foot; but the second line has 1, 1, 1 (a 
Molossus) in the second foot, and 1, s, 1 (an Amphimacer) in the last. 
" And the sheen | of their spears | was like stars | on the sea, 
Where the blue | wave rolls night | ly in deep | Galilee."* 

[Byron 

Poetic Pauses. 

861. Certain pauses are required in poetry to give full effect to the 
line. These are chiefly the cazsural and the final pause. 

The caesural pause is a suspension of the voice in the line itself; and 
the final pause, a like suspension at the end of the line. The following 
lines furnish examples. The caesural pause is marked ("), and a subor- 
dinate caesural ('). The subordinate is sometimes named demi-ccesural 
u "Warms' in the sun", refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars", and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through all life", extends' through all extent, 
Spreads' undivided", operates' unspent." [Pope. 

862. The effect of pause on a hearer depends on the well-known fact, 
that if too much be crowded on the attention at once, the impression is 
weakened. There must be one thing at a time. The parts of a thing 
must be impressed one by one, in order that the whole may impress. 

* Poetic feeling leads the poet to such changes in the feet, that he may make the 
image more vivid which he wishes to present, and may imitate the sense by the 
sound. Each of these lines imitates the object expressed in it. 



376 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Pauses are also needed for breath. 

(a.) The effect of the caesural pause consists in giving less than the 
whole line to the attention, and deepening the effect of the whole by 
that of the parts. 

(b.) The effect of the fiaal pause consists in not giving more than the 
line to the attention. 

Hence, in the best poetry, the sense is made to terminate with the 
line. The lines do not run one into the other. 

The effect of those chiselled lines from Pope would be marred by such 
wretched construction as would mingle the lines thus : 
"Warms in the glowing sun, and in the breeze 
Refreshes ; glows in stars, and in the trees 
Blossoms, and lives through life, and through extent 
Extends : unparted spreads, and works unspent. 



Bemarks on the Different Kinds of Verse. 

1. Verse op Disyllabic Feet. 
(L) Iambic (s, 1). 
Octameter. — Iambic verses of eight feet are now written with the line 
divided into two, and form what is called Long Metre. It has four lines 
each of four feet ; as, 

" Before | Jeho | vah's aw | ful throne, 
Ye na | tions bow | with sa | cred joy." 
Heptameier. — Iambic verses of seven feet are now written with the 
line divided into two, and form what is called Common Metre. It has 
four lines ; two of four feet, and two of three feet ; as, 
"This day | be bread, | and peace, | my lot; 
All else | beneath | the sun, 
Thou know'st | if well | bestowed | or not : 
And let | Thy will | be done." 
Heptameier and Hexameter combined. — Iambic verses of six and seven 
feet alternately, are now written with the line divided into two, and form 
what is called Short Metre. It has four lines ; two with three feet in 
each ; and two, with four in one, and three in the other ; as, 

" That so | Thy won | drous way 

May through | the world | be known ; 



versification: trochaic verse. 377 

While dis | tant lands | their trib | ute pay, 
And Thy | salva | tion own." 
Hexameter. — A line of six feet in Iambic verse is called an Alexandrine; 
as, 
" "Which like | a wound | ed snake | drags its J slow length | along." 
Pentameter. — Four Pentameter lines rhyming alternately, form what is 
called the Elegiac Stanza ; as, 

1 Tor them | no more | the bla | zing hearth | shall burn, 
Nor bus | y house | wife ply | her eve | ning care ; 
No chil | dren run | to lisp | their sire's | return, 

Nor climb | his knees | the en | vied kiss | to share." 

[Gray. 
Heroic verse in English is usually regarded as consisting of Penta- 
meter lines. Strictly, it is made of lines of ten syllables, with or with- 
out rhyme, with the Iambic Pentameter predominating, but with other 
metres intermingled, according to the demands of sense and feeling. It 
is called Heroic, because it is that by which heroic deeds are generally 
celebrated, in what is called heroic or epic poetry. Heroic verse in 
Greek and Latin is in Hexameters, with Dactyls and Spondees ; but in 
English, German, and Italian, the Heroic verse is Pentameter, with the 
Iambus (s, 1.) predominating. 

(2.) Trochaic (1, s). 
Trochaic verse resembles most in its rhythm, the natural recurrence 
of the accents in common conversation, with plain English words ; as, 
" Idle, | after | dinner, | in his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair." 
If we destroy the rhyme, by putting " place" for "chair," the sentence 
is nearly such as would be made in talking. 

It is sprightly, and imitates well the song and movement in flight of 
certain birds, as well as the running of waters ; as, 
" Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit! 
Bird thou | never | wert ! 
That from | Heav'n or | near it, 
Pourest | thy full | heart." 

[Shelley, To a skylark 
" Dashing | soft from | rocks a | round, 
Bubbling | runnels | joined the | sound." 

[Collins. 



378 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



2. Terse of Trisyllabic Feet. 

(1.) Anapaestic (s, s, 1). 

"With short lines, as in the Dimeter, this measure is used in low and 
satirical poetry ; as, 

" But his pluck, | see it fail, 
When no dodge | can avail!" 
With the Trimeter, it becomes more elevated : 
"lam mon | arch of all | I survey, 
(And) my right | there is none | to dispute." 
With the Tetrameter it has melody and some majesty, especially with 
a short syllable at the end ; as, 
"On the warm | cheek of youth | smiles and ro | ses are blend | ing." 

(2.) Dactylic (1, s, s). 

In the Dactylic, the one worthy of remark is the Hexameter. 

The Dactylic Hexameter is the measure in which the Iliad of Homer, 
and the" Eneid of Yirgil, are written. 

In languages using quantity to distinguish syllables, the Spondee (1, 1,) 
is used with the Dactyl. 

There are six feet, in which the last is a Spondee, (1, 1) ; the fifth, a 
Dactyl, (1, s, s,) the others Dactyls or Spondees ; as, 



1st foot. 


2d foot. 


3d foot. 


4th foot. 


5th foot 

u 



1st. 
or 2d. 

The same expressed by letters : 



1st. 1, s, s. 
or 2d. 1,1. 



1, s, s. 
1,1. 



1, s, s. 

1,1. 



1, s, s. 



6th foot 



1,1. 



1, s, s. 

1,1. 

1st. "Down did he | go from the | crags of | lympus with | rage in 
his | spirit." — Homer. 

2d. "So Cranes J clang loud | fast fly | far sweep | over the | sea- 
stream." — Homer, adapted. Book III., 1. 5. 
In a language, like the English, using accent to distinguish syllables, 

the Spondee is seldom found in separate words, but Dactyls are very 

abundant. In the place of the Spondee (1, 1), the Trochee (1, s) is used. 

Hence the form in English is : 



1st. 1, s, s. 
or 2d. 1, s. 



1, s, s. 
1, s. 



1, s, s. 
l,s. 



1, s, s. 

1,8. 



1, s, s. 



1, s. 



versification: dactylic verse. 379 

"When Dactyls are used, the only difference from the classic line is 
found in the last foot. For example : 

"Darkened by | shadows of | earth, but re | fleeting an | image of | 
Heaven;" 

In the word Heaven. 

In the Classic Hexameter, as every foot contains a Dactyl or Spondee 
there are two parts in every foot equal in time to each other, and the 
proportion is 2 : 2. 

This is found by experience to be one of the most agreeable for the 
human ear, especially for subjects sublime and plaintive. 

The heavy beat always comes on the first syllable. There being six 
feet, and often seventeen syllables in a line, there is sufficient length 
to harmonize with the grandeur of sublime subjects. 

So great is the charm from this proportion and arrangement, that 
while this measure requires for its principal theme a sublime or plaintive 
subject, yet it can pass to the most trivial objects, and make them ap- 
pear to be in keeping. This is seen in Homer. The influence of the 
measure is diffused like sunlight over the most low and common things. 
This effect is found from it in Greek, Latin, German. It is found even 
in English when the Dactyls are used throughout, and the proportion is 
2:2. An example is the following picture of cows going home at milk- 
ing-time. It could not have been given with similar ' effect in other 
measures in English poetry. One Spondee is introduced, in the com- 
pound, snow-white. But this Spondee preserves the proportion of two 
to two. 

" Day with its | burden, and | heat had de | parted, and | twilight de- | 

scending, 
Brought back the | evening | star to the | sky and the | herds to the | 

homestead ; 
Pawing the | ground did they | come, and some | resting their | necks 

on each | other, 
And with their | nostrils dis | tended, in | haling the | freshness of | 

evening : 
Foremost and | bearing the | bell, was E | vangeline's | beautiful | heifer, 
Proud of her | snow-white | hide, and the | ribbon that | waved from 

her | collar, 
Quietly | pa-ced and | slow, as if | conscious of | human af | fection." 

[Longfellow. 

This Dactylic Hexameter should be one of the recognized forms of 



380 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English poetry. It is suited to the genius of the Saxon side of the 
language. 

The measure is so natural in English that it is often formed uninten- 
tionally in prose ; as, 

"How art thou | fallen from | Heayen, | Lucifer, | son of the | 
morning J" — Isaiah. 

"Blessed and | holy is | he that hath | part in the | first resur- | 
rection!" — St. John. 

Highly- wrought descriptions in prose can scarcely be kept from it. 
Dactylic lines can be formed by slight changes from the descriptions of 
such writers in prose as Irving and Scott. For example, from " The 
Conquest of Granada : " 

. "Uproar a | rose in the | walls of Za | hara more | awful than | 
tempests." — Irving. 

Again, from Ivanhoe: 

"Hundreds of | broad-headed, | short-stemmed, ) white-branched | 
oaks which had | witnessed, 

Haply the | stately | march of the | soldiers of | Rome, long a | fore- 
time." — Scott. 

This leads to the next subject, Rhythm in Prose. 



Sec. 2. — Rhetorical (Non-poetic) Rhythm. 

Correspondent Construction in If embers. 

863. Rhetorical Rhythm is made by dividing rhythmical 
speech into divisions not uniform, called members (112), which 
contain a preponderance of rhetorical feet. 

In the following example, the members of a prose sentence are writ- 
ten vertically,* that they may be measured and compared. Opposite 
to each member is placed the number of its syllables, to show the ab- 
sence of uniformity. The predominating foot is 1, s, s, s, called the 1st 
Pgeon. An indication of one predominating foot at least in each member 
is given on the same line, with one letter of the next foot. The first 
member is not reckoned in the rhythm. "We shall learn from it, rules 
for the composition of sentences. 

* This method of placing the members should always be adopted in all the earliest 
written exercises in the formation of sentences. 



rhythm: in peose: sentences. 381 

Members. FeeU Syllables. 

1. It was before Deity, 

2. embodied m a human form, (1, s, s, s; 1.) 8. 

3. walking among m An, " " 5. 

4. leaning on their bosoms, " " 6. 

5. weeping at their graves, " " 6. 

6. slumbering in the manger, " " *?. 

7. bleeding on the cross, " " 5. 

8. that the prejudices of the Synagogue, (1, s, s, s, s, s; 1.) 11. 

9. and the doubts of the Academy, (1, s, s, s; 1.) 9. 

10. and the pride within the portico, u " 9. 

11. and the fasces of the Lictor, " " 8. 

12. and the swords of thirty legions, 8. 

13. were humbled in the dust. " " 6. 

In this passage — slightly altered, for illustration — from Macaulay,* 
are distinct divisions, called members. By inspection, they are seen not 
to be uniform in length, like correspondent lines of poetry, although 
they are proportioned. The recurring position of the accents causes a 
preponderance of the foot 1, s, s, s (1, 3 s). This order is broken in the 
8th line fori, 5 s; and again in the 12th, where three Trochees form 
a contrast, and prepare for a return to the common foot in the last. 

864. The regularity required by Rhythmical Speech (822) 
is in poetry by sameness of order, and in prose by similarity 
of order. 

865. Rhythm will exist in the members of a prose sentence, 
when those members have csesural pauses, and a similarity of 
syntactical construction in one to another. By a similarity 
of syntactical construction is meant the use of the same parts 
of speech in one as in the other, with the same relation be- 
tween them. 

In the example, there are six members, having in each a Participle and 
Noun, connected and related by a Preposition between them ; as, u walking 
among men," "weeping at their graves." This makes similarity of gram- 
matical construction. There is like similarity of construction in the eighth 
and following members, where there are two Nouns related by a Prep- 
osition; as, "prejudices of the Synagogue," "doubts of the Academy." 

866. The parts of speech regarded for accents are the four material 
parts of speech: Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs. 

* .Review on Milton. 



382 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

For the right construction of sentences, it is necessary that all super- 
fluous words, and all the formative parts of speech not essential to the 
sense, shall be excluded from each member. On a pair, at least, of 
the material parts of speech in each member, the strongest light must fall. 
This is the favorite formation in the great classic models. 

867. When such a construction is given to the members of sentences, 
there is a regularity in the succession of the accents which causes 
rhythm. 

The reason is in the nature of speech and the laws of accent. 

(a.) Thus, in the example, where a Participle and Noun are in one 
member, with a Preposition between them, the Participle must have its 
accent on its stem, not on its suffix ; as, leaning. The Noun must have 
its accent ; as, bosoms. The Preposition will not be accented, nor the 
formative parts of speech which may be interposed ; as, on their. There 
are thus, the Suffix, ing; the Preposition, on; and the Pronoun, their ; 
forming three unaccented syllables between two accented ; as, " leaning on 
their bosoms." A similar position of the accent will be given by the same 
construction in a second member, in a third, and thus continuously. 

Where two Nouns are connected by a Preposition, as in the latter 
members of the sentence, each Noun must have its accent — the Preposi- 
tion and Article intervening, none; as, " doubts of the Academy." So long 
as that structure is preserved, there will be a similarity in the positions 
of the accents. 

This result will always follow, whichever of the four material parts of 
speech be employed. Each one of these has, by the laws of accentuation, 
the accent similar in position in all its words of like construction. Thus, 
Derived Adverbs ending in ly will ever have one, two, or three unac- 
cented syllables at the end. This recurrence of the accent in similar 
positions necessarily causes rhythm. 

(6.) In the example, each member had but a pair from the material 
parts of speech. Correspondence in the position of the accents will, for 
the same reason, attend similarity of construction, when more than a pair 
are in one member. 

The following example shows, in the 1st and 2d members, two Adjec- 
tives and a Noun, connected by a Preposition, with the Adjective in the 
comparative degree ; in the third and fourth, three Nouns connected by 
Prepositions, with an Adjective attached to one of the Nouns. 

They (the Puritans) esteemed themselves 

1. rich, in a more precious treasure; 

2. eloquent, in a more sublime language; 



sentences: members: length. 383 

3. nobles, by the right of an earlier creation ; 

4. and priests, by the imposition of a mightier hand. 
The following general conclusions can now be stated : 

(c.) All the syllables used in any prose sentence must belong to words 
f of the Material or Formative Parts of Speech. In the Material Parts of 
Speech, every syllable must belong to the Stem or the Affixes. The 
Formative Parts of Speech and the Affixes are not accented. If the 
construction of sentences be such that the same Material Parts of Speech 
are in successive members, with the same grammatical relations, and 
connected by the Formatives, about the same number of unaccented sylla- 
bles will interpose between the accents, thus causing similarity of position for 
the accents. 

Similarity of position for accents in sentences causes regularity, and this 
causes Rhythm. 

(d.) This effect is found not only in English, but in all languages. The 
effect is increased where the ideas in successive members present divis- 
ions or contrasts. 

Rhythm is the inevitable result of such a structure, in any language* 
The writer has then no occasion to seek it. His care must rather be to 
lessen it.f 

Length and Divisions op Members. 

868. Pauses and divisions, like those used in poetry, are needed for 
a sentence in prose. They are needed for the same objects, the atten- 
tion of the hearer, and the breath of the speaker. (862.) 

869. In the established forms of poetry, is the recorded experience of 
mankind, showing what gives pleasure, and what divisions are demand- 
ed for breath and attention. In those forms, prose composition learns 
how to advance toward perfection. (810.) 

870. The divisions in poetry are, as we have seen, the line, the cas- 
sural pause, and the subordinate csesural. (838, 861.) 

Answering to the line in poetry with its final pause, should be the 
member of a* prose sentence (112), with its final pause; to the csesural 
pause, the distinct clauses (112) in a member; to the subordinate caesu- 
ral, the distinct phrases, which are parts of clauses. 

871. The proper length for the members of prose sentences, is indica- 
ted by the length of the lines in the established forms of poetry. 

* Cicero. 

t Hermogenes, and other commentators on Demosthenes. 



384 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The average length for the members of sentences in prose, the greater 
and least, may thus receive an approximating estimate, by considering 
what length of line is allowed in poetry. 

(a.) The English Heroic verse, the Pentameter, with lines of ten syl- 
lables each, has become classic in English, through experience and by 
close observation of the genius of this language. 

The average length of the members of good prose sentences, should 
approach this standard, and contain about ten or twelve syllables ; as, 
"Eloquent in a more sublime language." 

(b.) The longest lines in agreeable poetry, are found to be Pentameters 
of disyllabic feet, which contain fourteen syllables ; or Hexameters, of 
trisyllabic feet (excepting the last foot), which contain seventeen sylla- 
bles. 

The greatest length of the members of good prose sentences, should 
approach this standard, and contain from sixteen to twenty syllables ; as, 
"If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets." 

(c.) The shortest lines which can long be endured in poetry, are the 
Dimeters of four or six syllables ; or the Trimeters of six or nine, their 
average being about six. 

The shortest members of good prose sentences, should approach this 
standard, and contain from about five to eight syllables ; as, " Walking 
among men ;" " Refreshes in the breeze ;" " The coolness of shady foun- 
tains." 

(d.) The pause, at the end of these members, will correspond to the 
final pause in poetry. 

(e.) The prevailing feet should be those of four or five syllables. By 
this is meant, that in exact and elevated composition in English, made 
carefully and yet naturally, the accents will generally have from three to 
four unaccented syllables between them. For example, the Pseon, 1, 3 s, 
or, 3 s, 1, will be found prevalent, from the natural position of the ac- 
cent in English words. 

872. The rhetorical feet, being placed in members of these different 
lengths, will produce a harmony both natural and agreeable to the ear, 
without producing poetic lines. 

8*73. It is not meant that these numbers should be minutely observed, 
nor that there should be always a counting of the syllables as in poetry, 
but that there should be approximation. Sense should never cease to 
be prominent. But this trimming of members is for assisting the ex- 
pression of the sense. Remembering that there are limits fixed by na- 
ture, the writer should see that his members are not too long, nor too 
Bhort. They must be distinct, and proportioned. In judging of the 



sentences: members: principles. 385 

proportion, he must be guided by the experience of mankind, as record- 
ed in the best productions of the language. 

The opposed fault, making sentences with no order, no symmetry, no 
clear distinctions, is a great one. Sentences so made, are not pleasant 
when read, and often difficult to be understood. 

8*74. The arrangement stated, gives in prose, the effect of the final 
pause in poetry. 

The caesural pause is needed in the members of prose, as in .the line 
of poetry. In each of the members, should be divisions, correspond- 
ing to the ccesural pauses in a line of poetry, both the Primary and the 
Subordinate. Such pauses are seen in the examples : fasces' of the Lie- 
tor : swords' of thirty legions. 

When sentences are so made, with proportioned members, and with 
caesural divisions in the members, they are easy for the reader, pleasing 
for the hearer, and plain for the understanding. 

The great classic models Of antiquity, present prose of this character, 
alike in Greek and in Latin. 

The following example from Macaulay contains lines generally of the 
greater length with some of the average. The members are separated, 
the caesural pauses noted as before, as well as the length of the lines 
measured by the number of syllables. 
" If they were unacquainted' with the works"of philosophers'and poets, IT. 

they were deeply read" in the oracles of God. 12. 

If their names' were not found" in the registers of heralds", 14. 

they felt assured' that they were recorded", in the Book of Life. 15. 
If their steps were not accompanied" by a splendid train of menials, 18. 

legions' of ministering angels" had charge over them. 14. 

Their palaces", were houses' not made with hands" : 11. 

their diadems" crowns of glory' that should never fade away. 15. 

On the rich", and the eloquent", 8. 

On nobles", and priests", 5. 

They looked down' with contempt." 6. 

The following example contains shorter members : 

Splendid phantoms", trophied lists", embroidered housings", quaint 
devices", haunted forests", the gardens' of enchantments", the achieve- 
ments' of enamored knights", the smiles' of rescued princesses", are all' 
brought before us". 

In examining these examples, approximations will be found in the 
members to the numbers given. 

875. In the use of feet, whether in t£e sentences of poetry or prose, 
one principle is to be carefully observed. It is the following : 
17 



386 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The predominating feet in poetry must be poetic (of two or three syl- 
lables), or the composition will become prosaic. 

And likewise the predominating feet in elevated prose must be prosaic 
(of four or more syllables), or the composition will be too poetic, too 
much like the lines of blank verse. 

Young writers, fond of reading and committing poetry, are liable to 
this great blemish. The writing in which they take most pains is fre- 
quently so like poetry in the cadences of every sentence, that it becomes 
displeasing. 

In revising such composition, the writer should change the construc- 
tion, and in passages requiring rhythm, leave only the feet of four or more 
syllables, taking care that no one rhythmical movement shall be continued 
too long. 

816. The nineteenth attainment in language is ability (1) to mould sen- 
tences by means of their grammatical construction, into members distinctly 
divided, and properly proportioned ; and (2) to scan the rhythm of sentences, 
both in prose and poetry. 

The deficiencies to be obviated are : 1. The habit of not foreseeing the 
grammatical construction, and using it as the aid for the structure of the 
sentence; 2. The habit of forming sentences not distinctly divided; 3. 
Ignorance of the laws of harmony and euphony established by the genius 
of the language. 

811. In forming sentences, with correspondent grammatical construc- 
tion carried into two or more members, and containing rhythmical struc- 
ture, the following conditions are to be observed : 

1. The sentence must be divided into distinct members, each of which 
shall contain at least a pair, from the four leading parts of speech (Nouns, 
Yerbs, Adjectives, Derived Adverbs), with a grammatical relation be- 
tween them, such as was considered under the canons in syntactical 
parsing. (201.) 

2. The same parts of speech, and the same relation, which are put in 
one member must be carried into another, or others. 

3. All the other words not essential to the sense, and formative parta 
of speech which can be spared, are to be excluded from each member. 

For Oral Exercises. 

1. Scan passages selected from poets, and then from prose writers 
who form rhythmical sentences. State the number of accents and sylla- 
bles, and mark the final, cossural, and demi-cozsural pauses in lines of 
poetry, and members of sentences in prose. 



sentences: exercises. 387 

2. Take tho Derived Words of ihe language, and state what feet are 
formed by Derived Adverbs, Adjectives, Nouns of the Person, Nouns 
of the Thing, by Derived Yerbs, and by Verbs which are Branch- Words. 

3. Reversely, begin with the feet, and show what classes of words 
form those feet. Thus, in Disyllabic feet, what Derivatives in Saxon 
Words form 1, s (the Trochee) ? Answer. — Derived Verbs, Nouns, Ad- 
jectives, and Adverbs, when the Stem- Word has a single syllable ; as, 
blacken, blackness, blackly, goodly, goodness, kingdom. What Derivatives 
from Latin form s, 1 (the Iambus) ? Answer. — Among others, Branch- 
Words which are Verbs of two syllables, with the accent on the Stem- 
Word ; as, propel, expel, reduce, deduce, confer, refer. 

4. Mould sentences in prose from writers in poetry (like Pope and 
Byron), who use the correspondent grammatical construction, using 
equivalents from the synonyms for the rhyming words. Apply substi- 
tution from the Correspondent Derivatives, when practicable, and thus 
give variations for the original sentence. 

These exercises being written, then state orally what feet are thus 
formed in the members ; as, what when the Correspondent Derivative is 
the Adjective ? what when it is the Adverb ? when it is the Noun ? 
when it is the Verb ? 

5. Mould sentences with like substitutions and variations from prose 
writers (as Macaulay), who use that construction, and proceed as before. 

The first part of the fourth exercise and the fifth should be at first by 
writing. When skill has been obtained by the pen, it should be oral. 
A book should be taken, and as many variations of the same sentence 
made as are practicable. 

The other exercises are, from their nature, by word of mouth, though 
they may be written. 

Transition. 

From Rhythm, we now proceed to Figures ; and thus, from moulding 
the sentence by Syntax and measure, to that by the feeling and thought 
expressed. 






.388 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER II. 

Figures. 

878. Figures in Language are, in a general view, forms of 
speech for expressing thought. 

In a special view, they are changes from one form of speech 
to another — as from the usual to the unusual. 

A common example would be: " I saw frost"= u I met Jack Frost" 
There is the same thought in both. The figure in the last would be Per- 
sonification. 

The word figure is from the Latin Jingo, I form. The same material 
may be put into various forms, which are called the figures of that ma- 
terial. Holding a piece of soft wax in the hand, we may mould it into a 
cube, cone, globe, cylinder, or any other figure, according to fancy, or 
for use. So we may pour the same quantity of melted lead into various 
moulds, from which it will come forth in various figures. In all the dif- 
ferent arts, men are constantly putting raw materials, as iron, wood, 
stone, cotton, silver, gold, into different forms, for human use. 

8*79. In language, as compared with ideas, the Material is the thought 
(including the feeling) which is to be conveyed. The Form is the ex- 
pression of that thought in speech. 

General Yiew of Figures. 

880. In all Figures there must be a Material which remains un- 
changed, and a Form in which that Material is embodied, and in which 
Form, changes may take place. 

881. In Words, the Material is the meaning; the Form is the word 
selected to express that meaning. "We may use various synonymous 
words for the same idea ; as, Made, sword, weapon. 

882. In Ssntences, the Material is in the Proposition or Propositions 
expressed in the Sentence ; the Form is in the Sentence expressing the 
Proposition or Propositions. 

883. By a Proposition is meant the union, by a Copula, of the signifi- 
cation of a Predicate and Subject in an assertion, affirmative or negative ; 



4-6. 



figures: classes BrpuKruoE, 389 

as, " A rose is a flower." M A rose is not a violet." " Men are animals." 
"Men are mortal." "Minds are immortal." 

884. The word Sentence, as we have seen (803), includes the Sen- 
tence in Analysis and the Sentence in Expression. 

One Sentence in Expression (805) may include many Propositions; as, 
" Though men are animals, and as such mortal, yet their minds are im- 
mortal." 

885. In this most general view, all language is a form or figure for 
thought. Words and sentences are forms in which thought is embodied. 
The forms may vary, while the thought remains essentially the same. 

886. The subject of Figures promotes another attainment. 

The twentieth attainment in language is ability (1) to present the same 
proposition in all the various forms which language will permit; (2) to 
select those forms which are lest. 

The deficiency to be obviated is sameness in the form of statement, 
when variety is demanded. The following explanations are designed to 
promote this attainment. 

887. Figures may be classified according to their purpose 
or their material. 

888. Their purpose is the effect on the mind intended in 
using them. Their material is the substance on which they 
work in making changes of form, whether that be the sylla- 
ble, the word, the sentence, or the thought. 



Sec. 1. — Figures according to their Puppose. 

889. Figures may be classified according to their purpose and effect, 
under the following heads : 

1. There are figures of Quantity, which enlarge or contract. So a 
painter may make a large or small picture of the same subject. In syl- 
lables, we may make two syllables or one; as, against, ' 'gainst; over, 
o'er. In words, we may use one or many. Sentences may be long or 
short. Speech may be brief or full. 

2. There are figures of Position. These alter the position of the syl- 
lables of a word ; or the position of words in a simple sentence ; or 
the position of the members in a compound sentence. So a painter may 
vary the positions of the same objects in his picture. 

3. There are figures of Degree and Color. These give gradations 



390 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thus, in words, the Superlative degree is above the Comparative. In 
sentences, we may strengthen or weaken expression. So a painter 
gives gradations of color, of light and shade. 

4. There are figures of Resemblance, Variety, and Contrast. 

(a.) There are figures of Resemblance. They liken one thing to an- 
other, for heightening effect. Thus, the sound may resemble the sense, 
as in the words, hiss, buzz. In words, we may use the metaphor ; as, 
"His spear was a beam." In sentences, we may employ comparisons; 
as, " The staff of his spear was like a weaver's beam." So a painter 
places together what will harmonize. He thus heightens effect. 

(b.) There are figures of Variety. Thus, one synonymous word may 
be used for another. A sentence, equivalent in sense, may be substitu- 
ted for another. So a painter avoids monotony and repetition. 

(c.) There are figures of Contrast. These contrast one thing with an- 
other, to heighten the effect. Thus, in words we may use opposites ; in 
sentences, Antithesis. So a painter puts in contrast colors and forms, 
in order to increase impression. 

5. There are figures of Distinction. These make some one thing prom- 
inent above others. In syllables, we accent one in a word. In words, 
we emphasize one in a sentence. Among sentences, we may repeat a 
word in various positions, and thus form the figures of repetition. So 
in painting we may put certain figures in the foreground, and in strong 
light. 

6. There are figures of Generalization, and the reverse; of the whole, 
and of the parts. These generalize, or particularize. In words, we may 
use general terms; as, "The weapons struck the Dictator ;" or particular; 
as, "Their daggers stabbed Cozsar." In sentences, we may express a 
general statement, or we may subdivide the statement into its several par- 
ticulars. "We may say " A thousand bayonets," for " A thousand soldiers." 
So a painter may sketch an outline to give a general impression of an 
object, or he may fill it up, so as to make an exact representation. He 
may paint a part, conceal the rest, and thus suggest the whole. 

7. There are figures of Action and Passion. The one expresses life 
and motion; the other, emotions. Thus, words may personify ; as, "The 
sea saw that, and fled." Sentences may present inanimate things as an- 
imate; as, "The spear thirsted for blood." Words of emotion are seen 
in Interjections, and sentences expressive of emotion, are seen in Ex- 
clamations. 

890. This general view of figures, will not only enable the learner to 
understand them, and to distinguish them in parsing, but will aid him 
materially in composition. 



figures: classes by material. 391 

He will see that in sentences and words, he needs always to consider, 
1st. What space or time can I occupy? 2d. What arrangement shall 
I give to the parts? 3d. Where shall I heighten degree? 4th. What 
resemblance, variety, and contrast? 5th. Where must the expression 
be general, or particular? 6th. Where make parts prominent? *7th. 
Where give action or passion ? 

891. For an exercise, take any given proposition or propositions, and 
express it or them variously, according to the seven heads just given. 
1st. Enlarge or contract it. 2d. Yary the positions of the parts of the 
sentences. 3d. Give gradations in words permitting it. 4th. Form Resem- 
blances by metaphors and comparisons ; Variety by substitution ; Con- 
trast by opposites. 5th. Give prominence and distinction to emphatic 
words. 6th. Make the expression more general, and then more partic- 
ular, fan. Give action where the words will admit of it, and the ex- 
pression of emotion. 

For this exercise to be complete, some subsequent explanations are 
required. Though it be not complete, it will prepare attention and un- 
derstanding for what follows. 



Sec. 2. — Figures according to their Material. 

892. Figures, classified according to their material (888), are Syllabic, 
Verbal, or Sentential 

By their Material, is meant the verbal matter, in which the change 
takes place, which is produced by the Figure. The material or substance 
is the word, or sentence. Speech is made up of Sentences; Sentences 
of Words ; Words of Syllables. Figures are changes in each. Hence, the 
division given, into Syllabic, Verbal, Sentential. 

1. Syllabic Figures. 

893. Of Syllabic figures, there need only be named, Diaeresis, and 
Separation. 

(a.) JDiosresis, is the division of two concurrent vowels, into different 
syllables, usually marked thus (••), on the second vowel ; *as, aerial, 
Creator, cooperate. This is a figure of Quantity. It is used to prevent 
wrong pronunciation ; as, creator, cooperate. 

(b.) Separation (Tmesis), is the division of the two parts of a com- 
pound word, by an intervening term or terms ; as, " What prayer and 
supplication, soever.' 1 ' 1 



392 english grammar. 

2. Verbal Figures. 

894. Most Verbal figures, when traced to their mode of formation, 
are applicable also to Sentences. The following Yerbal figures are most- 
ly of this character. 

895. Yerbal figures of Quantity, give increase or diminution to the 
words expressing, or to the ideas expressed. In the words, more or 
fewer may be used. In the idea, we may take the whole, or the parts. 

(1.) Figures of Quantity, in words, express the same idea in more or 
fewer words. Those which use more, are Paraphrase, Definition, and 
Pleonasm. Those which use fewer are, Contraction, and Omission. To 
these may be added, Conjunctions, used or omitted. 

(a.) A Paraphrase (Periphrasis), uses many words for one: "He is 
oW'W'He is in the winter of existence." " Apollo"=" The Lord of 
life, and poesy, and light." 

Periphrasis is necessarily used in speaking of painful or disgusting 
subjects. 

(5.) Definition is a kind of Paraphrase. It puts the definition for the 
word ; as, for the word Justice, we may say, " That Virtue, which, ema- 
nating from the Divinity, has a place in the breast of every one of us, 
bidding us have a constant and perpetual good- will, to render to every 
man whatever is due to him." 

(c.) Pleonasm is the using more words than are necessary for the con- 
struction; as, "Your fathers, where are they?" 

(d.) Contraction (Tapeinosis) is the reverse of Paraphrase, or Defini- 
tion. It uses one word for many, or the word for the definition ; as, in 
the above examples the words, old, Apollo, Justice. 

(6.) Omission (Ellipsis) is the reverse of Pleonasm. It is leaving out 
words necessary for the construction, though not for the sense. Ex- 
amples have been abundantly given. 

Let it be observed that the English language is eminently Elliptical.* 
Hence, in English, not every Ellipsis is a figure, but only that which i3 
unusual. 

(f.) Conjunctions used (Polysyndeton) may be viewed as a species of 
Pleonasm; as, "He came, and saw, and conquered." 

(g.) Conjunctions omitted (Asyndeton) are a species of Ellipsis ; as, " He 
came, saw, conquered." 

* One cause for the numerous and perplexing exceptions crowded into English 
Grammars seems to have been the desire to avoid the recognition of Ellipsis, as be- 
longing to the nature of the language. This view seems to have been taken from 
French authorities. 



figures: quantity: variety. 393 

(1.) Figures of Quantity in ideas, express the whole thing spoken of, or 
its parts. A class is a whole, and its divisions, parts. To generalize, we 
use a class; to specify, we use the divisions. Figures which express parts 
of a whole are Synecdoche and Division; those which generalize or 
specify, are Metalepsis, Antonomasia, Distribution, Aphorism. 

(a.) Synecdoche expresses a part for the whole of any thing ; as, blade, 
for sword ; roof, for dwelling ; hearth, for home ; bread, for food ; muzzle, 
for cannon. The blade is part of the sword ; the roof, of the dwelling ; 
bread, of food; the muzzle, of the cannon. 

(b.) Division is the separation of a whole into its parts. Thus, instead 
of saying, "The troops were demoralized," we may enumerate the arms 
and divisions, and the various instances of panic and disobedience. 

(c.) When we use the whole for the parts, it is sometimes called Me- 
tonymy, and sometimes, a generalized Synecdoche. 

(d.) Antonomasia is using a general for a special word ; as, conqueror. 

(e.) Metalepsis is the reverse. It is the use of the particular word, in- 
stead of the general ; as, Napoleon. 

(f.) Aphorism (maxim, proverb, adage) is the use of a general sentence 
to express the sense of several particular sentences ; as, " Anarchy leads 
to tyranny." 

(g.) Distribution is the use of several particular sentences in the place 
of one general sentence. Distribution includes the use of examples. 
Thus, the previous sentence could be distributed by examples of anarchy 
ana tyranny in Greece, Rome, France, and England. 

[Obs. — Distribution resembles division. They both separate ; one, a 
general into particulars ; the other, a whole into parts.] 

Such are figures of extent, or Quantity. 

896. Verbal figures of Variety, Resemblance, and Contrast, are these : 

(1.) Of Variety: Equivalents, Derivation, Enallage, Dwelling. 

(2.) Of Resemblance : Metaphor, Comparison, Simile, Allegory. 

(3.) Of Contrasts : Antithesis, Antiphrasis, Irony, Oxymoron, Antime- 
tabole. 

1. Figures of Variety use varied expressions for one idea. 

(a.) Equivalents are synonymous words of the same part of speech ; 
as, power, strength, force; or, knowledge, science; all nouns. 

(&.) Derivation is the use of synonymous words of different parts of 
speech, as the Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs, corresponding to the 
Nouns in the last example ; e. g., empower, powerful, strengthen, &c. 

(c.) Enallage is the use of modifications of the same parts of speech ; 
the substitution of one mood, tense, case, gender, or number for another ; 
as, Our Websters and our Clays," for Webster and Clay in the singular. 
If* 



394 ENGLISH GUAM MAE. 

(d.) Dwelling (Commoratio, Epimone), is the repetition of an idea in 
various forms to heighten effect ; as, the proposition, " A good man 
should be always ready to die for his country" may be dwelt upon thus : 
u There is no peril to which a man of principle will not expose himself 
for the welfare of his country ; when its existence is in question, he will 
shun no danger which threatens his own existence. One sentiment will 
be ever in his heart, that it is better for him to suffer, than that the pub- 
lic should suffer in its being, well-being, or honor." 

Such are the figures for Yariety. Those of Resemblance follow. 

2. Figures of Resemblance express an idea by its likeness to another. 
Metaphor, Comparison, Simile, Allegory, are all but resemblances more 

or less expanded. 

(a.) A Metaphor is a Similitude without the sign of Comparison. It is 
Resemblance in its most condensed form ; as, " Achilles was a lion." 

(b.) A Comparison is a Similitude with the sign of Comparison ex- 
pressed; as, " Achilles was like a lion." It is sometimes called image. 

(c.) A Simile is a Comparison enlarged ; as, if we draw out a descrip- 
tion of a lion among sheep, and then say, " So was Achilles among the 
ranks of the foe." 

(d.) An Allegory is a Simile enlarged. Spencer's Faerie Queene, is an 
Allegory. It likens virtues to armed knights. An Allegory is a Re- 
semblance in its most expanded form. 

(e.) A Fable, a Parable, an Apologue, are names to express Resemblances 
that lie between the Simile and the Allegory, not being so brief as the 
first, nor so expanded as the other. 

Such are figures of Resemblance. 

3. Figures of Contrast express an idea by opposition to another. 

(a.) Antithesis is the use of two contrary words to emphasize the sense 
of one or both. "Sow when you are young, that you may reap when 
you are old." " As dying, and behold, we live." 

(b.) Antiphrasis is the use of one contrary with a negation, to express 
the sense of the other ; as, " Napoleon was not ignorant of war"=» 
" wise in war." 

(c.) Irony is the use of one contrary without a negation, to imply the 
sense of the other. It is constantly used in common life, as in calling a 
drunkard, " a pattern of sobriety." 

(d.) Oxymoron (wise folly, keen absurdity), is the asserting one con- 
trary of the other, so as to give contradiction in words, but truth in 
sense; as, " The silence of Nature is eloquence." 

(e.) Antimetabole (cross-changing), is a kind of compound Antithesis, 



figures: resemblance and variety. <$95 

with the contrasted words used in different senses ; as, " How can you 
live, when you die, if you are dead while you live f" 

Such are figures of Resemblance, Yariety, and Contrast. 

897. There are Yerbal figures which combine Resemblance and 
Yariety. 

There are those which use the same word in different senses, as 
Paronomasia. 

(a.) Paronomasia is using one word in two or more senses; as, "Let 
the dead bury their dead." The resemblance is in the word, the varia- 
tion in the meaning. 

This is the reverse of Equivalents by Synonyms. The latter present 
several words for one idea ; the former, one word for several ideas. 

The pun is a kind Of Paronomasia. 

[Obs. — Antimetabole might be referred to this head, on account of the 
different meanings in the same contrasted words.] 

898. There are figures which use similar construction for different Mgas, 
in the parts of one or in several sentences. The common name is Serial 
Reciprocation. 

(1.) The parts may reciprocate by likeness. The figures are then 
named Homoioptoton and Homoioteleuton. 

(a.) By the first (Homoioptoton) is meant that successive words have 
a like termination ; as, u Congress is deliberative ; the President execu- 
tive; the Judiciary, corrective." 

These words have like termination in ive. 

(b.) By the second is meant that successive members of a sentence have 
a like construction ; as with Intransitive Yerb, Preposition, and Noun : 

" Warms in the sun; refreshes in the breeze; 

Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees. 11 [Pope. 

Or, with two Nouns : 

" The Roman exercises comprehended whatever could add strength to 
the body, activity to the limbs, or grace to the motions." — Gibbon. 
Or, with Participle Passive, and Noun : 

" War was improved into an art, and degraded into a trade." — Gibbon. 

So, whatever the grammatical construction in one member, if it be re- 
peated in a second, third, or any number of members, this figure is 
formed. 

This figure is of much importance.* 

* It forms what is called point in writing. Its effect is remarkable. Proposi- 
tions of no special novelty or value are quoted as oracles from authors who put their 
thoughts into this figure. 



396 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(c.) The names Homoioptoton and Homoioteleuton present no ideas to 
one who has not studied Greek. 

In place of them, let the learner use the plain English name for this 
important figure, and call it Serial Likeness. 

If the likeness be in the word, let him add the term Verbal; if in the 
Syntax, Constructive, or Syntactical. If it be in the end of the word, add 
ending to Verbal; if at the commencement, beginning. In the first exam- 
ple, where the terminations are in ive, the figure (Homoioptoton) is Serial 
likeness, Verbal ending. In the other examples, the figure (Homoioteleu- 
ton) is Serial likeness, Constructive. In like manner, for Antimetabole, use 
the terms, Serial contrast, Verbal. 

(2.) Akin with this figure is that of the Series. 

A Series is a succession of words or phrases, under similar grammati- 
cal relations, usually in successive members of one sentence; as, "Mon- 
archy, Aristocracy, Democracy, are forms of government." 

The Series is simple or compound: simple when it repeats single 
words belonging to the same part of speech ; compound, when it unites 
a pair or more from the material parts of speech. 

These again are commencing or concluding : commencing, when they 
commence the sentence, and are before the verb ; concluding, when they 
conclude the sentence, and follow the verb. At the close of the com- 
mencing Series, the sense is unfinished ; at the close of the concluding 
Series, the sense is finished. 

Examples. — Simple commencing Series — " Faith, Hope, Charity are 
theological virtues." Simple concluding Series: "The theological vir- 
tues are Faith, Hope, Charity." " He travelled into Spain, France, Ger- 
many, and Italy." 

Compound commencing Series: "Vigor in the administration, disci- 
pline in the army, economy in the finances, marked his reign." 

Compound concluding Series : " His reign was marked by vigor in 
the administration, by discipline in the army, and by economy in the 
finances." 

[Obs. — If the parts reciprocate by contrast, we have Antimetabole. 
Let it have the English name already given : Serial contrast, Verbal.*] 

Such are figures combining Resemblance with Variety. 

899. Verbal figures ol Degree give higher or lower gradations, espe- 
cially in expressing Qualities, Actions, and Passions. 

They are Hyperbole, Paradiastole, Climax, Amplification, Diminution. 

(a.) Hyperbole is the improper use of the highest grade-word, or its 

* Reform is imperatively needed in the cumbrous phraseology used for figures. 



figures: degree. 



397 



equivalent. It is exaggeration ; the using a stronger expression than 
the truth will warrant: as if a warm day were said to be "hot as fire." 

(b.) Paradiastole (side-separation) is the distinction of the proper 
grade-word from those near it; as, "It is not warm, but temperate" 
" He was not brave, but foolhardy." 

(c.) Climax is the use of the several grade-words, or their equivalents, 
to heighten the effect of one ; as, " Not only warm, but hot; not only hot, 
but burning." "His previous love now became indifference; and he 
passed from indifference to dislike; and from dislike to disgust; from 
that, to hate ; and from hate to cruelty." 

(d.) Euphemism is a softened expression for a painful or disagreeable 
subject; as, "He fell asleep," for "he died." 

The two following belong to sentences : 

(e.) Amplification is giving higher degrees of quality to any subject, 
through details, by means of sentences. The full explanation of the 
figure belongs to Rhetoric. For Grammar, it is sufficient to say, it is in 
sentences what Periphrasis, Pleonasm, Dwelling, and Climax are in 
words. It gives parts, and details, and gradations for some one thing. 
Thus, the fact of a murder is to be amplified, and the atrocious charac- 
ter of the murder impressed by its attendant circumstances — as the per- 
son killed, the place, the time, the manner, the motive. "Gentlemen of 
the Jury, who was the person murdered ? His own father. In what 
place ? In the very chamber where the murderer was born. At what 
time ? On the day of rest, when good men were in the house of prayer. 
* From what motive ? To get money. In what manner ? Making him- 
self half drunk, that he might not quail, he first strangled, and then 
stabbed to the heart him from whom his own life came." 

j[/.) Diminution is the reverse of Amplification. It is giving lower de- 
grees of quality to any subject, through details, by means of sentences. 
A familiar example is in the apology, or excuse. 

Such are figures of Degree. 

900. The principal figure of Color is the Epithet. 

Epithets are the expression of the Qualities belonging to any subject ; 
as, " The dark, and deep blue ocean." 

901. Figures of Action express by vivid representation. Figures of 
Passion express Emotions. 

(1.) Figures of vivid representation are various. All but the Onom- 
atopoeia and Personification are referred to Sentential figures. 

(a.) Onomatopoeia (word-coining) is the imitation of sense by sound : 
of sounds and actions by words ; as, buzz, hiss, crackle, roar, murmur, 
whisper , splash. 



398 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(&.) Personification is attributing life to things inanimate; as, "When 
the ear heard me, then it blessed me." 

(2.) Figures of Passion are referred to sentences. 

902. Nearly all the figures thus far enumerated, have been included 
under previous exercises. 

903. Verbal figures of Distinction repeat the same word, or a similar 
one, for emphasis and impression. 

The figures are named according to the place of the repeated word in 
successive clauses of sentences, whether at the beginning of both ; at 
the end of both ; at the end of the first and beginning of second ; at the 
beginning of the first and end of second, and thus through the various 
positions, which a repeated word can occupy. 

The names have been borrowed from the Greek. They can be as well 
expressed in English, by the words, "head," and "end," in various posi- 
tions. They will be enumerated, but with no design of imposing the 
learning of them upon the memory. 

(a.) Anaphora (head-repetition) is placing the repeated word at the 
beginning of successive clauses or sentences; as, " A sword is upon the 
Chaldeans ; a sword is upon their mighty men ; a sword is upon their 
chariots; a sivord is upon their treasures." 

" Charity suffereth long, and is kind; charity envieth not," &c. 

(b.) Epiphora (end-repetition) is placing the repeated word at the end- 
ing of successive clauses, or sentences; as, " When I was a child, I spake 
as a child ; I understood as a child; I thought as a child. 11 

(c.) Symploce (doubled repetition) is a combination of the two just 
given; as, 

"Who required these witnesses? Appius. Who produced them? 
Appius. ' ' — Cicero. 

" Are they Hebrews ? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. 11 

" You exculpate a man whom the Senate has condemned; a man 
whom the assembly of the people has condemned ; a man whom public 
opinion has condemned. 11 — Cornif. ap. Cicero. 

(d.) Epanalepsis (head and end repetition) is placing the repeated 
word at the beginning of the first clause, and end of the second ; as, 

"Many and terrible punishments were invented for parents, and for 
relations, many 11 — Cicero. 

" Rejoice in the Lord alway, and again I say, rejoice. 11 

(e.) Anadiplosis (end and head repetition) is placing the repeated word 
at the end of the first, and beginning of the second : 

" The Lord thy God bringeth thee into a good land; a land of brooks 
of water;" 



figures: repetition, 399 

"As long as any one dares your defence, you shall live; and live as 
you now do." — Cicero. 

(/.) Epanodos (inverted repetition) is repeating two words with in- 
version of their places ; as, " You should not live to eat, but eat to live. 11 

(g.) Gradation (stair- way repetition) is placing the repeated words 
among the successive words of a climax ; as, 

" Add to your faith virtue, and to virtue, knowledge." 

"There can be for property no security without government; no gov- 
ernment without magistrates; no magistrates without obedience; no 
obedience without law ; no law without /wee." 

"He did not yield himself to the people only, but to the Senate; not 
to the Senate only, but to the Army ; not to the Army only, but to him 
who had charge of the Republic" — Cicero. 

(h.) Epizuexis (simple repetition) is placing the repetition directly 
after the word ; as, 

" Oh, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets." 

(*.) Polyptoton (syntactical repetition) is placing the same Substantive 
with different Prepositions; the same Yerb with different moods and 
tenses ; the same Adjective with different degrees, and so on through- 
out the syntactical modifications of which one word may be capable ; as, 

" Of Him, and through Him, and to Him, are all things." 

" He ever is, and was, and will be." 

"He is not only great, but greater, and greatest." 

"It not only can be, but is; not only is, but must be." 

Such are the figures repeating the same word. 

(j.) A part of the same word may be repeated; as " Beseeching, and 
besieging." "Look from victor to victim." 

This is syllabic repetition, called Annomination. 

(k.) The Derivatives of the same word, may be placed together ; as, 
" There was destruction by a destroyer, with destructive intention, on ma- 
terials that were destructible" 

" He giveth wisdom unto the wise, and knowledge to them that know 
understanding." 

This is derivative repetition. 

(I) Synonyms maybe repeated; as, "He has gone, he has quitted, 
he has broken away." (Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit.) This is called 
Synonymy. 

The same idea may be repeated in various forms, not by words in one 
sentence, but by various clauses and sentences. This is very common 
with orators. It is called Epimone, Commoratio, Expolitio», Dwelling 
on a point, driving a point home, clinching the nail. It is said of De- 



400 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mosthenes, that he never presented a strong point, without driving it 
home. The same is true of Daniel Webster. We have already named 
the figure, Dwelling. An example has already been given.* 
Such are figures of Repetition. 

904. Verbal figures of Position are Hyperbaton, Parenthesis. 

(a.) Hyperbaton is a transposition of words or clauses, in a sentence ; 
as, "In Him, we live, and move, and have our being." 

(b.) Parenthesis is the insertion in a sentence of words, or of another 
sentence, so as to interrupt the course of the construction ; as, " Do you 
not know what laws (if they are to be called laws, and not rather the fire- 
brands of Pome), this Clodius designed to fasten on us ?" 

905. Such are Verbal figures, of which many are in their origin and 
mode of formation, applicable to sentences. Next in order, are those 
which are Sentential. 

3. Sentential Figures. 

906. Sentential figures are divided into figures of Thought, and figures 
of Structure. 

Figures of Thought are called Mental ; those of Structure, Structural. 



FIGURES OP THOUGHT. 

907. Figures of Thought are Conversational, Descriptive, Dramatic. 

(1.) Conversational figures are those which are used in conversation, 
and are thence transferred to writing and public speaking. They imply 
relations between the speaker and hearer (or reader), with reference to 
the subject in hand. 

When conversing, we interrogate, exclaim, doubt, anticipate objections, 
appeal to the person addressed, concede, correct a word for a better one, 
or pass over some points slightly. 

These modes of speaking are natural in conversation. Transferred to 
writings or public speeches, they form a class of figures. 

* Dwelling is for sentences, what Synonymy is for words. In both, is repetition 
of a meaning, or of a proposition. 

These figures are here repeated, because important, and because two views can be 
taken of them. In one view, they come under figures of Variety, since they give 
variety to the same idea. In another view, they belong here, under figures of Repe- 
tition, since they repeat the same idea. 



figures: dramatic. 401 

I 
Names are given to express their nature. Accordingly the figures of 

this class are Interrogation, Exclamation, Doubting, Anticipation, Appeal, 

Concession, Correction, Overpassing. 

(a.) Interrogation is the expression of a proposition by a question ; as, 
" Hath the Lord said it, and shall He not do it?" 

(b.) Exclamation is the expression of a proposition with marks of 
emotion ; as, " Oh Liberty ! oh sound once delightful to every Roman 
ear /" 

(c.) Appeal (Anacoenosis) is the expression of a proposition with 
appeal to the judgment of the person addressed ; as, " Suppose Piso, 
some one had driven you from your house, how would you have behaved V 
— Cicero. 

" What man of you, if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone ?" 

(d.) Overpassing (Paralepsis) is the expression of one or more prop- 
ositions as passed over slightly. The forms used are: " Not to men- 
tion;" "I pass over;" " We will not dwell upon," with other equiva- 
lents ; as, " I might speak of the liberality of Sextius ; his domestic 
virtues ; his command in the army ; his singular moderation in office : but 
the honor of the State presents itself to my view, and calls me to omit 
those smaller matters." 

The other figures of this class are referred to Rhetoric. 

(2.) Descriptive or Pictorial figures are those which describe and 
paint. 

They are Vision and Painting. 

(a.) Vision is the representation of actions as if seen; as, "Yerres 
came into the forum, all on fire with wickedness and with fury. His 
eyes burned. Cruelty stared from every feature. All were in expecta- 
tion. How far will he go ? What will he do ? Suddenly he commanded 
his victim to be dragged forward ; to be stripped and bound in the mid- 
dle of the forum ; rods to be brought," &c, &c. — Cicero. 

(b.) Painting is what the name implies — vivid representation. It is 
applied to Persons, Traits of Character, Passions, Times, Places. Ex- 
amples will be found in the works of Poets and Orators. 

(3.) Dramatic figures are those which resemble the representations 
of Dramas on the Stage. They represent Persons and Passions. 

The principal are Personification, Apostrophe, Voice. 

(a.) Personification (Prosopopoeia) is representing as animated and 
present, what is not so; as, "If that Brutus were alive, if he rose here 
before us, if he stood at your feet — what would be your convictions ?" 
" Catiline, your country reasons with you." " The sea saw that, and 
fled" "Before His face, the heavens and earth fled away." 



402 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(b.) Apostrophe is turning from the Subject to address some person or 
thing; as, "0 Death, where is thy sting?" "Ye mountains of Gilbca, 
let there be no dew nor rain upon you I" "0 Porcian, and Sempronian 
laws!" " Generous souls, that perilled life at Marathon; that stood 
banded at Platea!" 

(c.) Voice (Sermocinatio) is the giving speech to one supposed pres- 
ent ; as, Cicero imagines the country speaking to Catiline : " For these 
many years, there has been no wickedness but by thee ; no crime with- 
out thee." So Solomon gives voice to wisdom : " She uttereth her 
voice in the streets : How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity V 

908. The principal Figures of Language, other than those of Senten- 
tial Structure, have now been enumerated. They all may be said to be- 
long especially to poetry, and to be thence transferred to prose. 

Exercise. 

909. For exercises, express the same proposition in all the figures, or 
in as many as it can receive. 



FIGURES OF STRUCTURE. 

910. Sentential Figures of Structure, are the various 
forms given to Sentences in the expressing of Propositions. 

The subject is valuable for every one who wishes to write or speak 
with facility and correctness. It teaches him how to form his sentences, 
and so to form them that he shall see the whole plan of his sentence in 
his mind, before he utters or traces its first word. The subject gives 
this instruction, by furnishing the mind with frames for the building of 
sentences. These frames are found in the proposition or propositions 
expressed in the sentence. 

For example (using letters (20) to represent the subject and predi- 
cate), the propositions, "If A be C, then D is F," may be the frame for 
a thousand sentences. 

Such a sentence would be the following : 

" If thou criest after knowledge, and (if thou) liftest up thy voice for 
understanding ; if thou seekest her as silver, and (if thou) searchest for 
her as for hid treasures : then shalt thou understand the fear of the 
Lord, and (then shalt thou) find the knowledge of God."— Prcov. ii. 3-5. 

It is evident that if one were about to speak or write this sentence, 



PROPOSITIONS FOR SENTENCES. 403 

he would derive assistance from perceiving that the whole structure was 
after the frame, "If A be C, then D is F," and that in the parts he had 
four propositions under the Conjunction "if," and two propositions under 
the Conjunction "then." 

Propositions are, accordingly, to the sentence what the frame of timber 
is to a house or ship, and what the skeleton is to a human body. When 
the dwelling or the vessel is completed and adorned, when the skeleton 
is clothed with flesh and blood in the living man, each may furnish an 
illustration of the Sentence as distinguished from the Proposition. 

911. The Proposition, accordingly, must be first explained. 

It is the material to which the sentence gives form. Change in that 
form produces the figures of Structure. The natural order is: 

1. Propositions; 

2. Sentences. 

The understanding of Propositions prepares for that of sentences, and 
the latter for the principles of elocution and punctuation. A clear un- 
derstanding of these subjects is always hindered by a neglect of the 
necessary preliminary instruction in Propositions. 



I. Propositions. 

912. The parts of a Proposition are the Subject, the Predi- 
cate, the Copula. 

These terms were explained in the commencement of Gram- 
mar. (20.) 

It will simplify the subject to begin with a tabular view. 



Propositions : 



Puke. 
Simple : •{ I Primary. 

Modal : ■< (Secondary and Complex Modals 
( belong to Compounds.) 



h; 



f implied; J Secondary Modals, 
(•Independent: \ P ' / Complex Modals. 

Compound: \ [expressed; \ gS^ 

nr.^^T^xrn, . i Conditional, in form, 
I Dependent : -j NoN . CONDITIONALi in > orm . 

913. That which forms the proposition, is the Universal Copulative 
Yerb expressing being. (311. 2.) This, in some finite (assertive) form, 
makes the words of a language into propositions. Without it, proposi- 
tions could not exist. 



404 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

914. There may be one Subject and one Predicate, or more 
than one. 

If there be one, the proposition is Simple ; if more than 
one, Compound. 

Propositions are thus divided like Sentences, into the Sim- 
pie and Compound, 

(a.) Simple Propositions. 

915. A Simple Proposition is one which contains but one 

Subject, and one Predicate. 

916. As the Copula may be with, or without the Adverb " not, 11 Prop- 
ositions are Affirmative or Negative; as, Affirmative, " James is playing ;" 
Negative, "James is not playing." 

917. As the Subject belongs to some class (Category), it will be gen- 
eral ov individual ; as, General, " Boys are playing;" Individual, "James 
is playing." 

A Common Noun will give a general Subject ; a Proper Noun, an in- 
dividual Subject. 

A Common Noun is made to have. a Universal sense, by the Adjective 
All, or by some equivalent expression ; a Particular sense by Some, or by 
its equivalents; as, Universal, " All boys love play;" Particular, " Some 
boys love study." Thus, propositions are Universal or Particular. 

918. The Predicate also belongs to some class (Category) and will be 
more or less general according to its place in the class ; as, "A crow is 
a bird; a bird is an animaV The second predicate is seen to be more 
general than the first. 

919. As the proposition may be with or without modify- 
ing* words, simple propositions are pure or modal. 

920. A Pure Simple Proposition is one with no modifica- 
tions. It has one Subject and one Predicate, with the Copula 
in the Indicative Mood. The Logical Subject and Predicate 
are the same with the grammatical, in the Sentence by Analy- 
sis; as, " Knowledge is power." 

* By modifying is here meant not the grammatical effect of an Adverb, but a log- 
ical effect on the sense. 



propositions: simple. 405 

921. A Modal Proposition is one with modifications. "Rain 
is falling" is Simple; "Kain is falling violently" is Modal. 

922. Modal Propositions are Primary, Secondary, or Com- 
plex. 

In the first, the modification is in the Copula ; in the second, in the 
Subject, or Predicate, or both ; in the third, in the whole Proposition. 

923. A Primary Modal is a Simple Proposition, with the 
Copula modified by being in the Potential Mood. 

Thus we express Impossibility, by " cannot be ;" Necessity, by "must 
be;" Possibility, by " can be;" Contingency, by u may be" 

They are Modals, because they modify the assertion. 

Secondary and Complex Modals are considered under Compound Prop- 
ositions. 

Exercises. 

924. 1. "With any proposition, change the place of the Subject and 
Predicate, yet preserving the same sense, and using grammatical equiv- 
alents ; as, " Nature is beautiful''^" Beauty is in nature." "Diana is 
great "=" Great is Diana." 

2. Express an affirmative by equivalent negatives, since two negatives 
form an affirmative. The negatives may be expressed by the Adverb 
not, or by the negative Affixes. " All men are mortal"=" No man is im- 
mortal." " All stars give rays"= u No stars are rajless" Express the 
negative by changing the particle; as, " No man. is perfect' 1 ==" Every 
man is imperfect." 

3. Make a general proposition particular, and the particular, individual; 
General, "All islands are surrounded by water;" Particular, "Some islands 
are surrounded by water ;" Individual, "England is surrounded by water." 

4. Make an equivalent to a general or particular, by attaching not to 
its sign; as, "Not some men are mortai"="AU men are mortal." "Not all 
islands are fertile"=" Some islands are fertile," " Some islands are not 
fertile." 

5. Make a modal proposition, into various forms, by the leading parts 
of speech ; as, " The rainfalls violently," Adverb; " with violence " Noun; 
" The rain is violent," Adjective. 

6. Make a modal proposition pure, by substituting the Indicative Mood 
with equivalents, for the Potential Mood ; as, " He may come"=" His 
coming is possible" — " is a possibility ." 



406 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(b.) Compound Propositions. 

925. Compound Propositions are those which imply or 
express two or more simple propositions. 

Example. — " The rain is falling copiously." Two propositions are im- 
plied: 1. The rain is falling; 2 The falling is copious. The sentence 
however is simple, since there is but one Verb. (31.) " The clouds 
gather, and rains descend." Two propositions are expressed. There 
are also two simple sentences as well as two propositions. 

Compound Propositions however expressed in Sentences, are capab > 
of being divided into two or more which are simple. 

926. Compound Propositions, like the sentences which ex- 
press them, are independent or dependent. (113,114,115, 
436.) 

The term serial has like sense with independent. (113.) 
(a.) They are independent, when the assertion of one is not 
made to depend on that of the other; as, "A is C, and D is 
R" "The sun shines, and the wind blows." (114, 250.) 

(b.) They are dependent, when the assertion of one is made 
to depend on the affirmative or negative assertion of the 
other ; as, " If A be C, then D is F." " If the wind blow, 
the leaves will be moved." (114, 250.) 

The same proposition can be expressed independently or dependently ; 
as, " Winds blow and leaves are moved." They are independent or de- 
pendent simply by our manner of using them, and not by the nature of 
the things expressed.* 

(1.) Compound Independent Propositions. 

927. Compound Independent Propositions are implied or 
expressed. 

928. They are implied, when the parts of the simple prop- 
ositions are in the sense, but not in the expression : expressed, 
when the parts are in the expression. 

* Grammar is occupied with words, not things. The learner's mind is to rest on tho 
expression, in determining whether propositions are independent or dependent. 



propositions: compound: independent. 407 

The implied, form the Secondary and Complex Modals. 

929. Secondary Modals are those propositions which 
modify the sense of the Subject or Predicate. 

The implied propositions are in the modifying words. The modifying 
words are usually by one of the four material parts of speech (27, 60), 
or by a clause of independent construction. (Syn. Spec, R. 19.) 

Thus (1.) with Adverbs : "James is striking William violently." The 
express proposition is, " James is striking." The implied propositions 
are: 1. The striking is on William, and 2. The striking is violent The 
last is from the Adverb. 

(2.) With Adjectives: "Napoleon was making a disastrous retreat 
from Moscow." The express proposition is that Napoleon was retreating. 
The implied are : 1. That the retreat was from Moscow, and 2. The retreat 
was disastrous. The last is from the Adjective. 

(3.) With Nouns : " The obstacles to the advance of Hannibal into 
Italy seemed insuperable." Several propositions are implied : 1. Han- 
nibal was advancing; 2. His advance was toward Italy; 3. To that 
advance there were obstacles. All these are implied in the Nouns. The 
remaining proposition is expressed, viz. : These obstacles were seeming 
to be insuperable. 

(4.) With an independent clause : " Napoleon, his abdication having 
been signed, left Fontainebleau." The proposition implied by the inde- 
pendent clause is, that his abdication had been signed. The proposition 
expressed is that Napoleon left Fontainebleau. 

930. As a preparation for exercises on modals, reference should now 
be made under Universal Grammar to Logical Analysis (lit), and to 
Relations in Syntax. (125-133.) The object is to fix distinctly in the 
mind the simple relations existing between the Subject and Predicate, 
and their modifying words. These relations have been seen in tabulated 
exercises in Analysis, between the Subject and Predicate in the first 
line, and the words in the lower ranks. (118). Those relations were 
there considered as a preparation for parsing. They are now to be in the 
mind for guidance in the formation and variation of sentences. They will 
be found subsequently to be the foundation for pauses in Elocution, and for 
points in Punctuation. 

Those relations are Subjective, Objective, or General. 

The Subjective is between (1.) a Verb, and its Subject, the Substan- 
tive; (2.) an Adjective, and its Substantive; (3.) an Adverb, and 
the word modified by it, whether (a) Verb, (b) Adjective, or (c) another 
Adverb ; (4.) a Pronoun, and its Antecedent. 



408 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Objective relation is between a Substantive governed in the Ob- 
jective Case, and (1.) the Transitive Yerb governing it; (2.) the 
Preposition governing it and also connecting it. 

The General relations include connection, substitution, and importation. 
Connection applies to the Conjunction: Substitution, to the Interjec- 
tion: Impartation, to any word usually acting as one part of speech 
doing the work of another. Hence, under the word, Substantive, both in 
the Subjective and Objective relation just given, will be included phrases, 
the Infinitives, and also Participles, when used in the office of Sub- 
stantives; under Adjectives, Participles used as Adjectives; under 
Transitive Verbs, Participles derived from Transitive Verbs. 

These same relations will also be found as the heads of the Rules of 
Synthetic Syntax, in English Grammar. (230-235, 423-450.) 

Reference should also be made to abnormal use (236), by Substitution, 
Transposition, and Ellipsis, and to remarks on Position. (450, 451.) In 
the exercises, the learner will form Ellipsis, transpose words, substitute 
one part of speech for another, and give to position all possible varieties. 

This preparation being made, we can proceed to 

Exercises. 

1. Divide Secondary Modals into all their implied propositions. Begin 
with the examples given, and go on to other and longer sentences. 

2. Restore the separate implied propositions ; and that expressed, into 
the form of a simple sentence. 

3. Yary the positions of the words and parts of the sentence in all 
possible ways, consistent with the preservation of the Sense. 

4. Expand the expression by multiplying modifying words. Contract 
to the most concise expression by removing them, and giving barely the 
principal proposition. 



Complex Modals. 

931. Complex Modals are those which modify the whole 
proposition, by a second proposition affirmative, or negative, 
implied. 

Of these are four classes : Exclusives, Exceptives, Comparatives, Re- 
strictives. 

932. In the first three, the implied proposition ia negative; in the last, 
affirmative. 



propositions: express compounds. 409 

(a.) Exclusives use the term, " only" or its equivalents; as, "Only 
A is C"=l. "A is C;" 2. "What is not A is not C." "Only officers 
command"=l. "Officers command;" 2. " Those who are not officers' dp 
not command." 

(b.) Exceptives use, "except" or its equivalents; as, "AM, except A,' is 
C"= 1. "A is not C;" 2. " What is not A is C." "All the company, ex- 
cept the captain, were killed." This is equivalent to declaring, 1. "That 
the captain was not killed ;" 2. " That the rest were killed." 

(c.) Comparatives use, "more than," "less than," or their equiva- 
lents ; as, "A is more great than C. " This is equivalent to 1. "A is great ;" 
2. " C is not so great." " Csesar was greater than Pompey" = 1." Caesar 
was great;" 2. " Pompey was not so great." 

(d.) Restrictives use, "so far as," "as," or equivalents, e. g., "Victoria, 
as Queen, signs bills." This is equivalent to 1. "Victoria signs bills ;" 
2. " The cause is, queenly authority." 

Obs. — In a sentence containing the pure simple proposition, the 
Logical Subject and Predicate do not differ from the Grammatical. In 
the Secondary and Complex Modals, they do differ, and there are mod- 
ifying words. In the Secondary, the modification is usually by the Ma- 
terial parts of speech, in the Complex by the Formative, or their equiva- 
lents. 

Exercises, 

1. Divide Complex Modals into their separate propositions. Begin 
with the examples just given, and proceed to others. 

2. Eestore the separate propositions into the form of a simple sentence, 
and state what class is formed. 

3. Yary, as before, the positions of the parts and words. 



Express Compounds. 

933. Express Compound Propositions are those which 
give several Subjects, or Predicates, or both, in the expression. 

These may be Serial, or Relative. 

(a.) They are Serial, when connected by the Copulative Conjunctions, 
or their equivalents, expressed or understood ; as, " He was good, and 
wise, and great." Here are three predicates expressed in a series by 
Conjunctions. The simple propositions are, "He was good," "He was 



410 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(b.) They are Relative, when connected by a Relative Pronoun, or by 
a Conjunction introducing a related sentence ; as " He whom thou lovest 
is sick." " Plato taught that the soul is immortal." Eelatives may be- 
long to the dependent class. 

934. The Serial Propositions may be more or less developed in the ex- 
pressions. They are fully developed, when no part of the proposition is 
understood ; as, " Alexander was a conqueror ; Cozsar was a conqueror , 
Napoleon was a conqueror." 

They are undeveloped, when some part of the proposition is under- 
derstood. There may be one Copula: 1. With several Subjects for one 
Predicate; as, "Alexander, Cozsar, and Napoleon were conquerors ;" 2. With 
several Predicates for one Subject; as, " Alfred was good, wise, and great;" 
3. With several Subjects for several Predicates; as, " Solon, Alfred, and 
Washington were good, wise, and great." 

Undeveloped propositions can be developed by repeating the Copula 
between each Subject and Predicate in the expression. 

Exercises. 

1. Develop the separate propositions contained in a sentence having 
an Express Compound. 

2. Restore the propositions to the form of a simple sentence. 

3. Give every variety of position to the parts and words, while pre- 
serving the sense. 

935. Observe that in the process, figures of repetition are made, as 
Anaphora, Epiphora, often used by writers and orators; as, "Then pat- 
riotism is eloquent; self-devotion is eloquent." Restored to one sentence 
these would be, w Patriotism and self-devotion are eloquent." 

(2.) Compound Dependent Propositions. 
936. Compound Dependent Propositions are expressed. 

Dependent Compound Propositions are, as has been stated (114, 250, 
926), those in which the assertion of one is made to depend on the 
affirmative or negative assertion of the other. 

931. Of these, the principal one is the Conditional. The Conditional 
is also the form to which the other kinds of dependent propositions may 
be reduced. (436, 448, note.) 

the uonditional. 
938. Conditional Propositions are expressed by the Conjunctions, "if" 



propositions: dependent. 



411 



— "then," or their equivalents. (252.) The equivalents maybe by- 
other Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs, by Yerbs with Conjunc- 
tions, and by Interrogation. 

939. Conditional Propositions include an Antecedent and a Conse- 
quent, as was shown under Syntax, with the Subjunctive Mood. (38*7, 
431, 432.) The Consequent is the simple proposition depending, and 
the Antecedent that depended on. (432.) 

When the position of the Antecedent is before the Consequent, the 
Construction is direct, and when after, indirect 





(a.) Direct Construction., 








Antecedent 




Consequent 






If 


Abe 


c, 


Then, 


D is 


P. 


"When 


"is 


a 


Then, 


u tt 


a 


As 


a a 


it 


Hence, 


a tt 


a 


As 


it a 


(( 


So, 


u a 


a 


Because 


a (( 


it 


Therefore, 


a a 


a 


Since 


a a 


It 


It follows THAT 


a a 


a 




A is 


C; 


and, consequently, 


a a 


a 




Is A, 

were 


C? 


Then, 


a a 

uld be 


a 


If A 


c, 


Then, D wc 


F. 


If A 


might be 


a 




i a 


a 


If A 


could be 


a 




t a 


a 


If A 


would be 


a 




c a 


a 


If A 


should be 


tt 




c a 


a 


Were 


A, 


c, 




( a 


a 


Might 


X be 


c, 




< tt 


a 


Could, would, should, " " 


ti 




t it 


a 




(b.) Indirect Construction. 








Consequent. 




Antecedent. 






D 


is 


P; 


For, 


A is 


a 


D 


u 


a 


Because, 


a a 


a 


D 


a 


a 


When, 


a a 


it 


D 


a 


a 


Since, 


a a 


a 


D 


a 


a 


As 


a a 


It 


D 


ti 


a 


From this, that 


a tt 


a 


940. In the list just given, 


the 


same propositions are s< 


sen to 


be uni- 


ted, and made dependent by different Conjunctions, Conjun 


ctive Adverbs, 



412 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Verbs with Conjunctions, and by Interrogation. An examination of the 
list, will retrospectively aid syntactical parsing, and the knowledge of 
Moods ; and prospectively will prepare for the skilful formation of sen- 
tences, and for logical reasoning. 

OTHERS (IN FORM) THAN THE CONDITIONAL. 

941. Dependent Propositions, not Conditional in their form, are the 
Causal, the Disjunctive, and the Discretive. 

(1.) Causal Propositions are those which express a purpose. 

They express a purpose to attain something, by the Conjunctions — 
"that," "so" — "that," or their equivalents; as, "I study that I may 
learn." "I have so put your candle that you may reach it in the night." 
"A is C, ^DmaybeF." 

(a.) Causal Propositions may be Negative. They then express a pur- 
pose to avoid something. (256. 4.) They do so by the Conjunction, 
"lest," or by "that," with a Negative Adverb attached to the Yerb ; 
as, "I study, lest I should be found ignorant." " I bring my body into 
subjection, lest I should be a castaway." " I study, that I may not be 
found ignorant." 

(&.) These are equivalent to the Conditional, affirmatively or negative- 
ly ; as, "I study that I may learn"=" If I study, then I will learn"="7jf 
I do not study, then I will not learn"="I study, lest I should not learn." 

(2.) Disjunctive Propositions are those which express an alternative, 
by " either" — " or," or their equivalents. " Either A is C, or D is E." 
"It is either day or night." 

(a.) By a Negative, the Disjunctive is equivalent to the Conditional. 
"It is either day or night"=" If it be not day, then it is night." "Either 
A is C, or D is E'W If A be not C, then D is E." 

(3.) Discretive Propositions are those in which the dependence is as- 
serted against a supposed denial, by means of "though" — " yet," "in- 
deed" — "but," or equivalents; as, " Though I am lame, yet I walk" 
="I am lame indeed, hut still I walk." 

(a.) By two negatives, which make an affirmative, these come back to 
the Conditional ; as, " If I am lame, I do not not — walk"=" Though I 
am lame, yet I walk." " Though my eyes are bandaged, yet I hear"= 
"If my eyes are bandaged, I do not not — hear," that is, I am not deaf, 
I do hear. " Though A be C, yet D is F"=" If A be C, D is not not— 
F," that is, D is E. 

942. All Dependent Propositions may receive the direct or indirect 
construction. In the direct construction, the expression of the depen- 



propositions: dependent. 413 

dence is complete, the sense being incomplete and suspended, till the 
second proposition is given; as, "If he permit me, then will I go." In 
the indirect, the expression of dependence is partial ; the sense being 
completed, and not suspended when the first proposition has been utter- 
ed : as, "I will go if he will permit me." We may stop the voice at 

the word go ; leave the other proposition unspoken, and yet express a 
completed sense. But with the direct construction, we cannot stop with 
the utterance of the antecedent proposition, and yet form completed 
sense ; as, "If he permit me — ." Both propositions must be expressed. 

943. Hence the direct construction is Suspensive for Sense, and the 
indirect, Non-suspensive. 

The bearing of this on Sentences and style, will be shown subse- 
quently. 

944. (a.) Accordingly, every Conditional may receive the one or the 
other construction, as may be seen in the examples given : 

(6.) So may every Causal : as, Direct and Suspensive, " That I may 
learn, I study;" Indirect and Non-suspensive, "I study .... that I 
may learn :" 

(c.) So may every Discretive ; as, Direct and Suspensive, " Though He 
slay me, yet will I trust in Him ;" Indirect and Non-suspensive, "I will 
trust in Him .... though He slay me." 

(d.) Disjunctives from their nature, have not the same degree of capa- 
city for the Non-suspensive construction. Yet it may be partially given 
by omitting the first of the Reciprocal Conjunctions; as, "It is day . . 
. . or it is night," instead of " either" — "or." 

945. This Analysis of Propositions has prepared for the 
understanding of Sentences, and for skill in forming them. 

But Exercises should now follow. Neither learner nor teacher can 
dispense with them. In all studies in language, explanations are sub- 
ordinate to practice. It is the order of nature, that from the time men 
begin to speak, they shall advance in language by practice. The most 
common fault in the use of text-books is the neglect of the Exercises, 
and making the pupils only recite. 

Exercises. 

1. Take any Conditional Proposition, and 

(a.) Leaving the Antecedent and Consequent in their place, supply all 
the equivalents for the Conjunctions "if" — "then," from the example 
just given (939), and from the list of Conjunctions (255) ; as, 



414 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" If there be design, then there must be a designer." " Since there is 
design, it follows that there must be a designer.'' ." Because there is de- 
jsign, therefore," .... &c, &c. 

I (&.) Changing the place of Antecedent and Consequent, insert the 
Conjunctions and their equivalents, required by the change of position ; 
as, "There must be a designer; for there is design," .... " Since there 
is design," .... "Because there is design, " &c. Take a second Proposi- 
tion and do the same. 

2. Taking Causals, Disjunctives, and Discretives, put them into the 
form of Conditionals. Begin with the examples given, and proceed to 
select others. 

3. Give to all, the two constructions, Direct and Suspensive ; Indirect 
and Non-suspensive. 



II. Sentences. 

946. Sentences in Expression may be called forms of lan- 
guage in which Propositions are represented. In the Propo- 
sition, is the Material ; in the Sentence, the Form. 

947. Sentences may be considered in their Sense, or in their 
Modes of Construction. 

948. Considered in their Sense, they have the same divis- 
ions with Propositions, and receive the same names. 

Hence Sentences are Simple or Compound; Pure or Modal; Indepen- 
dent or Dependent ; and thus through all the divisions of Propositions. 

949. Simple Sentences may be Declarative, Interrogative, or Exclam- 
atory ; as, " Snow falls." " Does snow fall ?" "How the snow falls I" 

They can receive modifying words equally in any of these forms. 

950. Modes of construction for Sentences, result directly from the na- 
ture of Propositions. 

951. As Propositions are Independent or Dependent, correspondent^, 
the mode of regular construction is serial, or reciprocal* The first is 
seen among nations and men in their first efforts in writing prose. The 
second is found only when style has been cultivated. 

* Aristotle. Rhetoric, p. 3., Chap. ix. {£IQ0\IEV7], K,aT£GTQa\l\LEVr\). He 
states the fact as universally observed. Here, it is drawn from the nature of lan- 
guage and propositions ; the fact with the reason. 



sentences: modes of construction. 415 

952. Considered in their Modes of Construction, the divisions 
of Sentences are the Reciprocal, and the Serial. 

953. Reciprocal Sentences are made by Dependent Prop- 
ositions ; as, " When the ear heard me, then it blessed me." 

[Obs. — The name Compact Sentence, is given by many authors, to this 
construction.] 

954. Reciprocal Sentences are Suspensive, or JVon-suspen- 
sive. The Suspensive are made by Dependent Propositions in 
direct construction ; The Non-suspensive, by the same in indi- 
rect construction : as, Non-suspensive, " The ear blessed me ; 
it did so, when it heard me." But Suspensive, " When the 
ear heard me, then it blessed me." 

955. Serial Sentences are formed by Independent Proposi- 
tions. 

To this, the name Loose Sentence, is given by many authors. 

Ex. — "Caesar came, and saw, and conquered, and soon fell." (115.) 

956. The size of the sentence does not change its nature or its name. 

957. It will be seen that the Reciprocal Suspensive Sentence presents 
an assemblage of words or parts, which do not form sense independent- 
ly of each other. When this fact exists, we have a Reciprocal Suspen- 
sive Sentence, even if the propositions are not by strict logical reasoning 
dependent. (926, o, and note.) 

Ex. — " As we cannot discern the shadow moving along the dial — so 
the advances we make in learning are only perceived by the distance 
gone over." 

Here the sense is not formed till the last word is pronounced.* 

958. In the Reciprocal Non-suspensive Sentence, the first part can form 
sense without the latter, but when the latter is pronounced, the two are 
seen to be connected, and one to modify the other. 

Ex. — " There are several arts, which all men are in some measure 
masters of, without being at the pains of learning them." — Addison. 

Here, if we stop at masters of, we find complete sense formed but not 
the whole sense, f Its meaning is affected by what follows. There is 
connection of sense, with a certain modification. 

959. The Serial Sentence has its first part forming sense, without being 
affected in meaning by the latter part. 

* Walker. t Walker's Bhetorical Grammar. 



416 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — " Persons of good taste expect to be pleased, at the same time 
they are informed ; and think that the best sense always deserves the 
best language." — Addison. 

The latter part after the word informed, adds something to the declara- 
tion, but does not modify or alter it. 

960. Propositions logically dependent, may be made to take the Serial 
(loose) construction. Inversely, independent propositions may be put 
into sentences having the Eeciprocal Suspensive (compact) construction. 
The sentence is to be classified by its mode of structure for suspense, 
not by the logical relations of the propositions. 

961. (a.) Yet, the proper frame for the Reciprocal Suspensive Sentence, 
will be made by the Conditional Proposition, with direct construction: "If 
A be C, then D is F." (436. Note to 448). 

. (b.) That for the Eeciprocal Non-suspensive Sentence, will be made by the 
Conditional Proposition with indirect construction : " D is F ; for A is C." 

(c.) That for the Serial Sentence will be made by Independent Proposi- 
tions: " A is C, and D is E, and F is G-." 

On account of their great value, these laws are given by 

Recapitulation. 

Proposition. Frame. Sentence. 

Dependent : Direct. If A be 0, then D is F. Reciproc. Suspensive. 

" Indirect. D is F;/or A is 0. " Non-Suspensive. 

Independent, Express. A is C, and D is F. Serial. 

962. By holding these propositions in the attention, the 
mind can always be possessed of plans by which sentences 
may be formed, in speaking or writing, and by which sen- 
tences can be analyzed for parsing, punctuation, elocution, ar- 
gument, or criticism. 

As all sentences are reducible at last to these three frames, 
the value of these laws, for a young writer, is immense. 

963. The reciprocal structure can be always given to Sentences by 
means of the Reciprocal and paired Conjunctions. (255.) These need not 
always be put into the expression, but being in the mind, they enable 
one, in the most rapid speaking or writing, to foresee the form of the 
sentence before the first word is given forth. 

Let the list of Reciprocal Conjunctions be again brought to the memory 
and held in recollection for use in constructing sentences. (255.) 



sentences: their parts. 417 

Parts of Sentences. 

964. The parts of Sentences (112) are members; of members, clauses; 
of clauses, phrases. 

965. The names formerly given to these were, Colon, meaning a mem- 
ber ; Semicolon, meaning half or part of a member ; Comma, meaning 
what is cut out of a member. 

These names are now applied not to the parts of sentences, but to the 
marks used in Punctuation for distinguishing them. 

966. The word, Period, is used for the Sentence, for a particular kind 
of sentence, and for its mark in Punctuation. 

96*7. Sentences may have one member or many; the members may be 
long or short ; compared with each other, they may be equal or unequal. 
In position, the shorter may precede or follow. Thus varied forms of 
Sentences are made. 

968. Sentences are named, one-membered, two-membered, three-mem- 
bered, four -member ed, and thus continuously, according to the number of 
members. 

969. In Sentences of Reciprocal formation, are two principal parts, 
the Protasis, and Apodosis ; the first, in the Suspensive construction, in- 
dicating that part in which the sense is suspended ; the second, that in 
which it is completed. In the example already given (" As we cannot 
discern the shadow moving along the dial — so the advances we make in 
learning are only perceived by the distance gone over"), the Protasis ends 
at "died;" the Apodosis is the remainder of the sentence. In this case, 
as there are two members, the Protasis and first member are the same. 

9*70. In a Sentence of three members, two may be in the Protasis, and 
one in the Apodosis; or, one in the first, and two in the second. In the 
following example, two are in the Protasis, which ends at the word 
" grow, 11 and one in the Apodosis. The two greater parts are connected 
by the Conjunctions, "as" — u so." 

" As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did 
not perceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though 
nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as 
they consist in such minute steps, are only perceivable by the distance 
gone over." — Addison. 

971. In a Sentence of four members, two maybe in each of those 
greater parts ; or, one in the first, and three in the second ; or, three in 
the first, and one in the second. 

In the following example, two are in the Protasis, which ends with 
the word " inhabitants" and two in the Apodosis. 
18* 



418 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11 If there were as much sway for impudence in this Forum, and in the 
courts of justice, as there is for insolence in the open country and in 
places of few inhabitants, Aulus Cascina would yield in this trial as 
much submission to the impudence of Ebutius, as he did in the attack 
to his insolence ." 

972. Limits to the length of sentences are required for ease in speak- 
ing, and for readiness in comprehension. If the sentence, or any of its 
members be too long, it tasks the breath of the speaker, and the atten- 
tion and understanding of hearer or reader. 

973. Some languages admit longer sentences than others. This is 
the case with most of the leading families ; as, Greek, Latin, German, 
where the tendency is to throw the Yerb to the end. Derived lan- 
guages, such as English and French, demand shorter sentences. 

974. As prose style is cultivated, the sentences of writers have the 
number of members lessened, and the size of each member diminished. 

This is seen in the literature of all countries. In English, the sen- 
tences of Milton in his prose works, can be compared with those of re- 
cent writers, and they will be found much longer. 

975. When a sentence is carried beyond the common limits, it adds 
to its name, the epithet, extended. 

97 6r As Structure is of two kinds, the Reciprocal and the Serial, both 
may be of the extended kind. 

977. As the Reciprocal Suspensive Sentence can be made by the Re- 
ciprocal and paired Conjunctions, so it can be made extended by repeat- 
ing the first Conjunction of the pair, in successive members, and using 
the second of the pair in the last member. 

(a) For example, the paired Conjunctions may be, "whereas" — 

" THEREFORE." 

" Whereas, a treaty of cession was concluded in Washington City, in 
the District of Columbia, by James Barbour, Secretary of War, of the 
one part, and John Stedman and others of the other part, and which 
treaty bears date the 24th day of January, 1826; and whereas, the ob- 
ject of said treaty is to embrace a cession by the Creek nation of lands 
owned by them, &c. ; and whereas, it was the opinion of the parties at 
the time, &c. ; and whereas, it has been since ascertained, &c. 

"Therefore they, the chiefs and head men aforesaid, agree to cede, and 
they do hereby cede," &c, &c. 

(b.) Other Conjunctions, as "though" — "yet," "when" — "then," 
"forasmuch as" — "therefore," can be used. Examples can be select- 
ed from poetry and prose, and many will spontaneously occur to the mem- 
ory, when the first words are given; as, " Though you untie the winds," 



sentences: exercises. 419 

.... "though bladed corn be lodged," &c "Although the fig-tree 

shall not blossom," &c "When there were no depths .... 

when" &c., &c. 

(c.) Yery long and suspensive sentences are thus formed. They have 
been called Ultra Periodic. 

978. The Serial Extended may be equally long, but it diffeis from the 
other in not being suspensive. The different members may be strung 
one after the other in regular form by repeating one Conjunction, or Con- 
junctive Adverb ; in irregular, by any connecting particles, as Preposi- 
tions and Eelatives. For example : 

" This prophecy can only have fulfilment when the influence of the 
Gospel has found its way to the human bosom .... when the law of 
love shall spread its melting and all-subduing efficacy .... when am- 
bition is dethroned .... when the guilty splendors .... when .... 
when" &c. 

This sentence, as given by its author, would fill nearly two pages of 
the present work. To such sentences there seem no limits but the will 
or breath of the speaker. 

From this circumstance, such sentences have been named Pneumata 
from a word signifying breath, since no limit appears but in the exhaus- 
tion of the breath. 

An example of irregular construction of the Serial Extended can be 
found in the narratives of conversation. A part of one from Milton is this : 

" Much later, in the private academies of Italy, whither I was favored 
to resort, perceiving that some trifles I had in memory, composed at 
under twenty or thereabout, (for the manner is that every one must give 
some proof of his wit and reading there) met with acceptance above 
what was looked for ; and other things " 

This is but about half of the sentence as written by Milton. 

It is evident that for such sentences no limits can be foreseen by the 
hearer or reader. 

Such construction is defective. 

979. As the leading forms of sentences have now been seen, practice 
in forming them should follow. 

In all exercises in forming sentences, the members should be written 
separately, one underneath the other, like lines of poetry. This is a practice 
of vital importance for the learner, that he may estimate each member, and 
compare one with another. 

Exercises. 

1. From some book, read and classify the sentences. 



420 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Taking the propositions in sentences, put them into various sen- 
tential forms ; the Serial or Loose ; the Reciprocal Suspensive and Non- 
suspensive. 

Quality and Quantity in Sentences. 

980. Some sentences are in their structure superior to others. They 
draw more attention, are more quickly comprehended, make a stronger 
impression on the mind, and are more agreeable to the ear. They are 
hence superior in quality. 

981. The previous explanations and exercises have presented the 
forms which can be given to sentences, and these which now follow in- 
dicate the forms which should be preferred and selected. The method is 
like that for words. In them the first question was. What words can be 
used for one subject ? the second, "Which should be used ? In both sen- 
tences and words, the true method is to understand possible forms before 
the suitable and preferable. 

982. The full statement of the principles for the selection of forms 
for sentences, belongs, as for the choice of words, to Rhetoric ; and their 
value for reasoning, to Logic : but the forms themselves, and practice in 
making them, to Grammar. 

983. What is necessary is, that the mechanism of sentences, and abil- 
ity to make them as moulds for propositions, shall be mastered, before 
the uses of language in Rhetoric and in reasoning (Logic) are studied. 

984. The Qualities required in a Sentence are Unity, Clearness, 
Strength, and Harmony. 

(a.) Unity. 
Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence or a series of 
clauses. For this, (a.) Separate into distinct sentences clauses which 
have no immediate connection ; (&.) Preserve the same syntactical struc- 
ture in successive members, keeping, for example, the subject in the first 
clause the subject in successive clauses ; (c.) Avoid the introduction of 
parentheses, unless they are indispensable. 

(b.) Clearness. 
Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words and clauses. For 
this, view the four leading parts of speech in pairs, with the proper syn- 
tactical relation between them, and so place them that this relation can be 
perceived without mistake. Hence, (a.) Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, and 
explanatory phrases must be placed as near as possible to the words to 
which they relate: (b.) Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate 
the antecedent. 



sentences: periodic form. 421 

(c.) Strength. 
Strength gives to every word and member its full effect. For this, 
(a.) Reject superfluous words : (b.) If there be division, contrast, oppo- 
sition, or resemblance, let there be conformity in the language or con- 
struction. 

(d.) Harmony. 

Harmony gives to the sentence spoken its proper rhythm. This has 
been fully explained, and the structure indicated which will bestow it. 

985. The form for the sentence, which gives these qualities 
of clearness, unity, strength, and harmony, is the Periodic. 

986. The Periodic Form is given by making the structure 
always reciprocal. 

(a.) If a Serial Sentence be used, its parts are made reciprocal. If a 
Reciprocal Sentence be used, the whole is so by nature, and the parts are 
made reciprocal also. If the sentence used be the Btciprocal Suspensive, 
then the whole and the parts are or are made both reciprocal and sus- 
pensive. Such is the best form, that in which the parts of the structure 
perpetually reciprocate. Examples will be found under Exercises. 

(&.) Language, as we have seen, has two modes of structure, the Re- 
ciprocal and the Serial, and two like divisions of sentences. The differ- 
ence between them is, that the Reciprocal causes suspense in the first 
part of the sentence before the second is given, or shows some corres- 
pondence in the second part of the sentence, when given, to the first. 
The Serial structure gives neither suspense nor correspondence. 

(c.) By the periodic form, the effect of the Reciprocal structure is given, 
whatever may be the kind of sentence employed. 

987. By Quantity in a sentence, is meant size. It is the length of the 
whole, or of the members. The proper length is determined by propor- 
tion. To give the Periodic structure the best quality, the whole and parts 
must be properly proportioned in quantity. They must not exceed in length, 
the capacity of the breath in speaking, or of the mind in comprehending. 
If disproportioned, they lessen the pleasure or the instruction.* 

9S8. This kind of composition is found by the experience of all mankind 
to be the most agreeable, and most effective. There is a constant succes- 
sion of expectation and satisfaction produced by the sentences.* 

989. The reciprocation is made through the Sense, or the Syntax. 

(a.) It is made through the Sense (l-).by a whole divided into parts : 

* Aristotle RJiet, III. 9. 



422 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2.) by opposition in words and ideas : (3.) by a condition and conclu- 
sion. The mode of forming these has been already learned ; theirs* 
and second from the Categories, in which we have seen Divisions and 
Opposites : the third, from a Conditional Proposition ; as, " If A be C, 
then D is F." 

(b.) The reciprocation is made through the Syntax, by taking the Mate- 
rial Parts of Speech in pairs, with a syntactical relation between them ; such 
as were viewed in applying the two Canons in Parsing. (201.) 

There must then be, 1st. One grammatical relation in one member be- 
tween Material Parts of Speech, (as between a Noun and Noun, or Noun 
and Adjective), and all superfluous words and particles must be rejected 
from that member. 2d. The same grammatical relation must be repeated 
in a second member, as between Noun and Adjective, and with a like 
rejection of what is superfluous. The similarity of syntactical relation 
makes the members reciprocate ; the rejection of all superfluous words re- 
duces them to the proper length. By a law of nature also, the similarity 
of grammatical relation, with needless ivords excluded, forms Rhythm by 
similarity in the positions of the accents. 

Examples and Exercises. 

990. Eor examples and for exercises, (1.) begin with sentences of 
reciprocal construction in poetry, and by equivalents for the rhyming 
words, turn those sentences into prose with the same construction. 
(2.) Proceed to sentences of that construction in good writers in prose, 
and give varied forms, yet preserving the reciprocal structure. (3'.) Ad- 
vance to translations. Then (4.) when a habit is formed, and skill ac- 
quired, apply the process to your own composition, at first by imitation, 
afterward with originality, 

(1.) a. In the following example from Pope the Reciprocal structure 
is given by Subdivision. The proposition to be divided is, " The Deity 
is Omnipresent in His works." The works are divided, as the stars, the 
ether, the sun, the air, life, extension, soul, body. In the last five lines the 
syntactical relation is that of a Yerb and Noun, and the Yerbs in those 
lines are used intransitively except the last. 

The first two fines contain the proposition. While the whole passage 
is framed on the principle of Subdivision, yet the second element, that 
of Opposition, is used subordinately. In the second line, "body" and 
11 soul" are contrasted ; in the third, " changed" and " the same." 
" All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 
Whose body Nature is, and God the soul ; 



RECIPROCAL STRUCTURE: EXAMPLES. 423 

That changed through all. and yet in all the same, 
Great in the stars, as in the ethereal frame ; 
"Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 
Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees ; 
Lives through all life, extends through all extent, 
Spreads undivided, operates unspent ; 
Breathes m our soul, informs our mortal part." 

[Pope. 

Of the last five lines, let us take four, and (using synonymous ex- 
pressions for the rhyming words, and if needful for the others) frame 
sentences whose parts shall present two Nouns with a Preposition be- 
tween them. For the previous lines use the proposition ; as, 

Prop. — " The Deity is Omnipresent." 

Div. — " He gives warmth in the sun ; refreshment in the air ; splendor 
in the stars ; blooms in the plants ; life to all living things. " 

(1.) b. In the following example from Byron, the proposition to be di- 
vided is, "The Sea is the Corsair's home." The first two lines have for the 
Material Parts of Speech, an Adjective attending a Noun, before it in the 
first line, and after it, in the second ; as, " glad waters," "dark-Hue sea," 
" thoughts boundless" " souls free." In the next two, are a Noun with 
Verb : the breeze bears, the billows foam, the country is surveyed. 
11 O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue sea, 
Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free, 
Far as the breeze can bear, the billow foam, 
Survey our country, and behold our home." 

[Byron. 

In turning this into prose, Nouns can be substituted for the Adjectives 
and Verbs, and a reciprocal structure kept ; as, 

Prop. — " The Sea is the Corsair's home." 

Div. — " Our course is over the gladness of the sea, and the azure of its 
waters. Like it, our thoughts are without bound, and our souls without 
a chain. "Wherever is the force of the breeze or the foam of the billow, 
our survey is on our country, and our gaze is on our home." 

The Nouns and their effect can here be seen.* 

(2.) a. For an example in prose, the following proposition is divided by 
Macaulay. " The Incarnation impressed mankind." He takes the sub- 



* The classical student will remember how Tacitus and Thucydides sought to 
give the structure with Nouns. 



424 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

divisions of the Subject and Predicate : of the Incarnation, and of man- 
kind. The parts of the Incarnation are given from birth to death. The 
parts of mankind are among Jews, Greeks, Romans : and among Jews, 
the Synagogue ; among Greeks, the two great schools of philosophy, the 
Academy and the Portico; among Romans, the civil power of the 
Lictor, and the military power of the legions.* He frames the first set 
of members, with a Participle and Noun, having a Preposition between 
them ; as " Walking among men, leaning on their bosoms :" the second set 
with two Nouns united by a Preposition ; as, " The doubts of the Acad- 
emy" " the fasces of the Lictor." 

" It was before Deity embodied in a human form, walking among men, 
leaning on their bosoms, weeping at their graves, slumbering in the 
manger, bleeding on the Cross, that the prejudices of the Synagogue, and 
the doubts of the Academy, and the pride of the Portico, and the fasces 
of the Lictor, and the swords of thirty legions, were humbled in the 
dust." 

For practice in paraphrasing we may substitute Nouns for Participles, 
and the Active for the Passive form of the last Yerb, " were humbled" 
The change will make the passage inferior in beauty and in power, but 
will serve for an exercise. 

Prop. — " The Incarnation impressed mankind.' ' 

Div. — " The Deity was embodied. His walking was among men ; His 
repose was on their bosoms ; His sorrow by their graves ; His first sleep 
was in the manger ; His last breath was on the cross : 

" This gave victory over the Synagogue, with its prejudices; the Acad- 
emy with its doubts ; the Portico with its pride ; the Lictor with his 
fasces ; and the thirty legions with all their arms." 

(2.) b. In all these examples, Division is the principal source for the 
reciprocal structure. Let us now take an example in which the two 
other elements of reciprocation are used, viz. : 1. Opposition, or Contrast ; 
2. A Condition and Conclusion. 

In the following example the proposition is, that " The possessions 
claimed by the Puritans were superior to those of other men." 

" If the Puritans were unacquainted with the works of philosophers 
and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of G-od. If their names 
were not found in the registers of heralds, they felt assured that they 
were recorded in the Book of Life. If their steps were not accompanied 
by a splendid train of menials, legions of ministering angels had charge 
over them. Their palaces were houses not made with hands ; their 

* The assistance given to a writer by Division and by Classifieation, is thus seen. 



RECIPROCAL STRUCTURE! EXAMPLES. 42 3 

diadems, crowns of glory that should never fade away ! On the rich and 
the eloquent, on nobles and priests, they looked down with contempt ; 
for they esteemed themselves rich in a more precious treasure, and elo- 
quent in a more sublime language, nobles by the right of an earlier 
creation, and priests by the imposition of a mightier hand." — Macaulay. 

Division is first applied to the proposition as it stood in the writer's 
mind. Possessions are divided; as, learning, fame, service, residence, no- 
bility. In each of these is a separation by Contrast Under learning, 
the " works of philosophers and poets" are contrasted with the " oracles 
of God." Under fame, the "registers of heralds," with "the book of 
life." Under service, a " splendid train of menials," with " legions of 
ministering angels." Under residence, " palaces," with " houses not made 
with hands." Under nobility, " diadems," with " crowns of glory." 

Then the reciprocal effect from a condition and conclusion is given by 
the form of the conditional: "If they were unacquainted," — "if their 
names were not found," &c. 

(3.) a. Translation of such sentences from other languages into 
English, if they are known, or under study, should now be made, with a 
careful preservation of the balanced or reciprocal structure. 

In the following example from Cicero, which has been universally ad- 
mired, the idea expressed is a very simple one : " Self-defence is a law of 
nature." In the first member are contrasted Adjectives, scripta, nata ; in 
the second and third, Yerbs, as didicimus, and five others ; in the last, 
Participles, as docti, and three others. The contrast throughout, is by 
opposing a law made by nature to one made by men. 

" Est enim hsec, Judices, non scripta, sed nata lex : quam non didi- 
cimus, accepimus, legimus ; verum ex natura ipsa, arripuimus, hausimus, 
expressimus: ad quam non docti sed facti, non instituti, sed imbuti 
sumus." — Cicero pro Milone. 

We may translate this, using the same parts of speech, and only 
making the Yerb passive ; as, " This law, Judges, is not outwritten but 
inborn. It is not learned, accepted, read ; but from nature itself, seized, 
swallowed, outpressed. We are not taught it, but made for it; not 
educated up to it, but imbued with it." But the best practice is to sub- 
stitute other parts of speech ; for example, Nouns and Participles used 
as Substantives ; as, 

Prop. — " Self-defence is a law of nature." 

Div. — " This law, Judges, is not from human writings, but from birth ; 
not by learning, receiving, reading ; but from nature itself, by seizing, 
drinking, outpressing. We have it by creation, not by training ; by in- 
tuition, not by education. 



426 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

b. Other parts of speech could be used, as the Passive for the Active 
Yerb, and the reverse. 

The literature of all countries, especially that of France, will furnish 
numerous and admirable examples. If the learner studies French, he 
should translate, following the principles given. 

c. In exercises in translation, the Correspondent Derivatives in both 
languages (Correspondent Yerbs, Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs, from 
one Branch or Stem-Word), should be in the mind. The first exercises 
should then be by a method. The same sentence should receive several 
translations into English, one literal, the others by substitution of the 
Correspondent Derivatives, and Synonyms. It should then be turned 
back into the other language, with variations after the same method 
Command of one's own language, and knowledge of the other, will be so 
promoted that the number of variations can be made less and less in later 
exercises. 

(4.) After this practice, from English writers in poetry and prose, and 
from foreign languages, when such are or have been studied, the process 
thus learned should be applied to one's own composition. 

a. At first proceed by imitation.* Take a finished passage as that 
from Macaulay, on the effect of the Incarnation. Imitate the structure 
on some other but familiar subject. For example, the subject may be, 
the effect of Roman discipline in subduing nations ; or the effect of the 
invention of fire-arms ; of steam ; of plated war-ships. Then, if the 
first subject be the first, the imitation will proceed after a few sentences 
involving the proposition : 

" It was before the Roman soldier, selected by the State, trained by 
exercise, hardened by exposure, clad in armor, keeping rank, yet fighting 
hand to hand, that the tribes of Italy, and the phalanxes of Greece, and 
the walls of Carthage, and the strength of Oriental empires fell to the 
earth." 

The passage concerning the Puritans can be imitated in subjects which 
compare one subject with another ; as, for example, " Homer blind, with 
a rich man." " Yirtuous poverty, with prosperous wickedness ;" as, 

" If the blind poet knew not the arts of traders for winning gold, he 
knew that diviner art, which draws the praise of men through all gen- 
erations," if, &c, &c. 

b. The habit having been formed, the composition should now be 
purely original. 



* Heiueccius. 



period proper: principles, 



427 



991. Observe that the steps of the process are ever these: 

(\.) The first is, to see distinctly the Proposition, which is to be un- 
folded. It is well to write it separately. The subject taken should be 
familiar, so that the divisions and contrasts can be easily made. 

(2.) The second is, to separate the Subject of the Proposition, or the 
Predicate, or both, into parts by division or contrast in the same way in 
which a Category is divided ; as in the examples from Pope and Mac- 
aulay. 

(3.) The third is, (a.) to appropriate a member of the sentence to each 
part of the division or contrast ; (b.) to determine what grammatical re- 
lation shall be used in each, and between which of the four Material 
Parts of Speech ; (c.) to use the same grammatical construction in two or 
more members which are to reciprocate ; and (d.) to throw out all need- 
less particles (formative parts of speech). 

Obs. — The figures called Homoioptoton, and Homoioteleuton will thus 
be formed. 

992. When a Serial Sentence is made with this reciprocal structure 
in its parts, it is called the Serial Periodic. 

993. "When a Reciprocal Sentence is made with this reciprocal structure 
in the parts as well as the whole, it is called a Period; and if it be sus- 
pensive, a Period Proper. 

The word Period is from two Greek words (jxeQl, odog), one signi- 
fying around, and the other, road. The primary idea is that of a road 
around, like that on a race course. The Protasis forms one half of the 
course around, and wakens suspense, the Apodosis the other half, and 
brings repose. 

994. A Period Proper is a Reciprocal Suspensive Sentence, 
whose parts are mutually correspondent in sense or grammat- 
ical construction, and which are of such length that the whole 
may be comprehended in a single view.* 

An example is in the sentence quoted from Addison ; " As we per- 
ceive the shadow," &c. (910.) 

Such a period is the natural form for the conditional proposition. 

995. But that form of the Sentence called the Period, can always be 
made when we express Division, Opposition, or Inference. 

996. The members of a period should be neither too long nor too 
short. Excessive length confuses, excessive shortness disappoints.* 



* Aristotle. Ehet. iii., 9. 



42^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The greatest, least, and average lengths have been already stated, as 
shown by lines of poetry. Those lines record the experience of man- 
kind. Members will assume this length, when the rules given are fol- 
lowed. 

997. The number of members cannot pass beyond four, without run- 
ning into the extended form. (975.) 

998. The sentence of four members, when appropriate, has been 
greatly admired in ancient and modern times, especially that called the 
crossed four membered, in which the fourth reciprocates with the first, 
and the second with the third.* For example, 

1. " As Philip makes his situation better, 

2. He gains influence universally ; 

3. But you win contempt continually, 
4. Because you make your position worse."f 

In this example loosely translated from Demosthenes, the second and 
third reciprocate in sense, and in grammatical structure, as do the first 
and fourth. As to structure, in all of them are a Transitive Yerb, and 
a Substantive as its object ; but in the second and third, Adverbs are 
used with them, and in the first and fourth, Adjectives ; and Adjectives 
in contrast : better — worse. If the third and fourth members changed 
places, the effect would be lessened. 

The elements of this period are Condition and Contrast. From the 
condition of the situation follows the consequence; for Philip, influence, 
and for the Athenians, disgrace. The Contrast is formed by opposing 
the conduct and result for one party, with those for the other. 

Exercises. 

(1.) In the works of the best writers in English, classify their Sen- 
tences and select the best. 

(2.) Do the same in any other language in which you read with facility. 

(3.) Propositions being given, reduce them to the best sentential forms. 

(4.) Break long sentences, your own and others, into the shortest 
which can be made, remembering that the fault of young writers lies in 
not breaking sentences which should be broken, and that the genius of 
the English language favors the short sentence. 

999. From Figures we now pass to Elocution: from the sentence writ- 
ten, to the sentence spoken. 

* Hermogenes: Delnv. iv. Heineccius: Fundamenta Stili. (1,2,24.) 
t Olynthiac 2d. 



ELOCUTION. 429 



CHAPTER III. 

Elocution. 

1000. Elocution is that branch of Grammar which treats 
of the correct utterance of sentences in discourse. 

The word is derived from the Latin (e-loquor). It means literally " I 
speak out." By verbal definition, Elocution is the outspeaking of dis- 
course. 

1001. Declamation, or public speaking, is one part of Elo- 
cution. Reading in private or public is another. 

1002. The twenty-first attainment in language is ability to read and speak 
sentences well in private and public. 

The deficiency to be obviated is that from not knowing how to read or 
speak in the best manner which one's natural endowments will permit. 

1003. The great rule for this attainment is to study nature and follow 
nature. Observe the pauses, tones, inflections, and varieties in ordinary 
unrestrained speech. See how these are changed by the influence of 
feeling. All good elocution is but a copy of the natural expressions of 
men, women, and children. 

1004. A kindred rule is, to regard all speech as imitation. Look 
then at the sense of that which is about to be read or spoken, and 
with the sense, at the feeling implied or expressed. Then imitate that 
sense or feeling in the mode of speaking. If, for example, the things 
spoken of are separated in sense, separate them in the voice by pauses. 
If they are connected closely, then in speaking connect them closely. If 
the sense be suspended, let the tone of the voice be suspensive ; if the 
sense be concluded, let the tone of the voice be that belonging naturally 
to the conclusion of a sentence. If the ideas be contrasted, let there be 
contrast in the movement of the voice. If the feeling be bold, let there 
be boldness in the tone ; if sad, plaintiveness, and thus through all kinds 
of feeling. 

1005. But these general rules require support from explanations and 
from well-directed practice. Explanations and exercises, therefore, follow. 

1006. Elocution includes sound and intervals of silence. 



430 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Sound includes Time, Pitch, and Force. Silence form? 
Pauses. 

1007. Time, or Quantity, is, as its name imports, the rate of speaking, 
as determined by the number of syllables pronounced in a given time. 

The varieties of time regarded by Elocution, are slow, quick, and com- 
mon time. 

1008. Pitch is the tone or note of voice produced by expansion or 
contraction of the vocal chords, as the breath is directed on them. Their 
expansion and lengthening produce what is called a low tone or note ; 
their contraction, a high note. 

The varieties of pitch regarded by Elocution, are high, low, and middle. 

1009. Force or Volume is the degree of stress in speaking, determined 
by the amount of breath, given in one vocal emission or in one impulse 
of the voice. 

The varieties of force are loud, soft, medial. 

1010. The same sentence may be spoken with all these varieties of 
time, pitch, and force. 

The varieties produced by combinations and permutations should be 
made, as an exercise, by the learner from the elements. 

Elements for Combination. 
Pitch. Force. Time. 



High, Loud, Quick, 

Low, Soft, Slow, 

Middle. Medial. Common. 

For example, the permutations would begin : 

( quick, ' 
High, loud, -< slow, 

( common. 
High, loud, quick, would be the first combination. 

1011. Pauses are divided, as long, full, middle, short, mi- 
nute ; the first being longest, and the last shortest. 

Let the learner now add to the previous permutations those from 
pauses. Thus the first combinations would be : 

High, loud, quick, long pause. 

" " " full " 

" " " middle " &c. 

Exercises. 
Take any good Sentence as from a book of selections, called a Speaker, 
and, 



elocution: intervals of silence. 431 

1. Give it in varieties of time. Do this first, because the time or 
rate of speaking is the basis for the other elements. Read the sentence 
very slowly, then very rapidly, then at the common rate. 

Of these three varieties, note especially the slow time, since that is 
most important. The old maxim is, 

" Slow speaking learn ; all other graces 
"Will follow in their proper places." 

2. Give the same sentence in varieties of pitch. Read it with the 
lowest note of your voice, then with the highest, then with that which 
is common when speaking. 

3. Give the same sentence in varieties of force or volume. Speak it 
very loudly, then very softly, then with your usual degree of loudness 
in talking. 

4. Now proceed to the permutations. Speak the same sentence with 
the combination, slow, low, loud ; then with that of slow, low, soft, and 
thus throughout. 

5. Add the element of pause (taking a second sentence with the 
other), and make other combinations ; as, slow, low, loud, long pause 
between the sentences ; slow, low, loud, and short pause between the 
sentences. 

[Obs. — In these exercises no special regard is to be had to the sense. 
Only the elements which the pupil can use, and the combinations which 
he can make at will, are to be under his attention. As in words and 
sentences, so in elocution, the materials are to be known first and se- 
lection is to follow.] 

1012. We now proceed to these elements separately, and thus to se- 
lection. 



Sec. 1. — Intervals of Silence, 
need for pauses. 

1013. Pauses, or intervals of silence, are needed for the separation of 
speech into divisions. These divisions are required, both for the breath 
of the speaker and the comprehension of the hearer. 

(a.) Breath is essential for speech. (41 ?, 418.) Given out, as it is in 
uttering words, it must be resupplied. Pauses are intervals in which 
this can be done. 

(b.) The mind needs in spoken as in written language, (862, 868, 8*74,) 
that parts shall come under the attention, one by one, in distinct divisions. 
Pauses make these divisions. 



432 ENGLISH Q ll A M M A R . 

The same law of nature thus assists at once the speaker and the 
hearer. 

1014. Pause demands special attention. All the other elements of 
Elocution require it to accompany them. They may be furnished by na- 
ture and by feeling, but pause belongs to art. The others are often ac- 
quired without study, while pause must be made the subject of study 
and practice. 

1015. The first step in all correct Elocution is to foresee in the matter 
the pauses which are demanded. The intervals of silence must receive at- 
tention in reading before the elements of sound. 

Ever look to the end* of your sentence. Provide sufficient breath at 
the beginning. Resupply it at the intervals. Thus avoid that exhaustion 
at the end of sentences which makes the last part obscure. 

PROPORTION IN PAUSES. 

1016. Proportion in Pauses is needed to express subordination among 
the divisions of speech. The greater divisions require pauses of greater 
length than the smaller. 

Pauses, as we have seen (1011), are divided, as the long, the full, the 
middle, the short, and minute. 

101*7. (a.) The long pause may be regarded as the unit, of which the 
lest are fractions. In duration of time it is equal to the bar rest in 
music. Eor those not acquainted with music, a standard of comparison 
may be found in lines of poetry, the same standard as for the lengths of 
members of sentences. (869, 811.) It occupies about the time required 
for the deliberate speaking of a line of ten syllables, such as that in Eng- 
lish blank verse, or for the quick speaking of a line of seventeen syllables, 
such as that of the Dactylic Classic Hexameter. (862, Eemarks.) The 
standard may thus be the slow utterance of a line of Milton's Paradise 
Lost, or the more rapid utterance of a line from Homer, from Yirgil, or 
from an English poet writing in Dactylic Hexameter. 

1018. (6.) The full pause is about half of the long; (c.) the middle 
pause is about half of the full ; (d.) the short, (corresponding to the 
quaver rest in music,) is about half of the middle ; and (e.) the minute, 
half of the short. The minute is the slightest suspension of the voice 
heard in speaking. 

Such are the decreasing divisions of intervals of silence called Pauses. 

1019. In applying these pauses to discourse, the simple principle of 
nature is followed : Speech is imitation. Hence, things disconnected in 

* A rule universal in language is that " the end of speech is more than the be- 
ginning." 



pauses: general view, 433 

sense, should be disconnected by the voice through pauses. Degrees of 
separation in the sense should correspond to degrees in pauses. 

1020. The decreasing divisions of discourse correspondent to these 
decreasing divisions of silence, called pauses, are the paragraph, the 
sentence, the member, the clause, the phrase. 

As a general rule, each grade of pause is applied to the correspondent 
grade in the divisions of discourse : as the long, to the paragraph ; the full, 
to the sentence; the middle, to the member; the short, to the clause; the mi- 
nute to the phrase. 

1021. It should, however, be understood, that these pauses are to be 
regulated by proportion. They are not abso]ute and definite, but relative. 

(a.) The pauses are to be in proportion to the rate of speaking. In 
slow time they are all lengthened, and in quick time shortened. 

(b.) The pauses in the parts of a sentence are to be in proportion to that 
pause which follows a sentence. Thus, between two sentences which are 
both long, the pause may be full. In that case the members and clauses 
will have the middle and short pause, the proportionate parts of the in- 
terval between the sentences. But between two short sentences the 
interval of silence may be only that of the middle pause. The parts will 
then, by the rule of proportion, take the short or minute pause. 

(c.) The pauses are to be in proportion to the effect intended. Thus, the 
reader or speaker may intend that a word, or a clause, or a member, or 
a sentence, shall be specially impressed on the attention. In that case, 
such word, clause, member, or sentence, may be preceded, or both pre- 
ceded and followed by a pause longer than it would otherwise receive. 
For example : " Well ! — honor— is — the subject of my story." 

The place of the pause is indicated by a dash. 

Obs. — Let the reader observe that he is guided by his own intention 
and will. He cannot always know all which an author intended, and 
hence may have a misgiving which will mar his reading. But he can 
always know what he himself intends in the effect. Looking at this 
solely he can have confidence. And confidence is assistance. 

Exeecise. 
Take a book, as before, and apply pauses, according to the principles 
just stated. 



1022. Some learners will not need to go farther with the subject of 
pauses. But for those who do, the following instructions, more specific 
in their directions, will be found useful. 
19 



434 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARTICULAR RULES FOR PAUSES. 

1023. The long pause follows after the paragraph, and marks the close 
of a subject, or of an important head. 

It precedes the change from one topic of discourse to another ; or from 
one mode of speaking to a contrasted mode, as from the language of 
strong emotion to that of calm statement. 

It affords an opportunity to recover breath for the body, and self- 
possession for the mind ; and to change the time, pitch, and force in 
speaking the paragraph, or head following. Impression is thus increased. 

1024. The full pause follows the full and long sentence in the para- 
graph, (unless there be some very close connection intended with the 
sentence following). It marks the close of the statement of an important 
proposition. 

It therefore precedes the change from one completed proposition to 
another, or from one figure or mode of speaking to another, in a second 
sentence. It, also, like the long pause, but in less degree, resupplies 
breath, and prepares for needful variations in the mode of utterance. 

1025. The middle pause follows after the member of the sentence, 
and in the reciprocal construction, after the middle or Protasis. It marks 
the beginning of the statement of a proposition, as a preparation for the 
closing or the distinction of member from member. Accordingly, as 
structure is reciprocal or serial, (951) these rules result naturally. 

1. In the reciprocal sentence, the middle pause is to be inserted between 
the Protasis and Apodosis, (the Antecedent and Consequent). The first 
example following has two Conjunctions expressed ; the second but one. 
The place of the pause is indicated by a dash. 

Ex — "As no faculty of the mind is capable of more improvement than 
the memory — so none is in more danger of decay by disuse."* 

Ex. — "As in my speculations I have endeavored to extinguish passion 
and prejudice — I am still desirous of doing some good in this par- 
ticular."* 

The middle pause here follows after "memory" and "prejudice." 

Ex. — " As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but 
did not perceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, 
though nobody ever saw it grow : — so the advances we make in knowl- 
edge, as they consist in such minute steps, are only perceivable by the 
distance gone over." 

In these examples the sentence is suspensive ; the logical antecedent 

* These examples are selected by Walker from Addison. 



pauses: particular rules. 435 

precedes the consequent. The same pause is to be applied where the 
construction is non-suspensive ; as, 

" Every one that speaks and reasons is a grammarian and a logician 
— though he may be utterly unacquainted with the rules of grammar, 
or logic, as they are delivered in books and systems." 

The middle pause here follows after the word, " logician." 

If this sentence received the suspensive construction, it would be 
thus: 

" Though utterly unacquainted with the rules of grammar or logic, as 
they are delivered in books and systems — yet any one who speaks and 
reasons is a grammarian and logician." 

The antecedent and consequent have but changed places. The re- 
lation is the same, and hence the pause is the same. It is now after 
the word, " systems." There is a suspensive inflection accompanying the 
pause in this suspensive construction to be afterward considered, but 
that is distinct from the pause. 

2. In serial sentences, belonging to one proposition, or in the serial 
structure in one sentence, the middle pause follows the serial members 
or sentences. 

The pause here marks connection of sense and dependence. Hence, 

(a.) If serial sentences follow one another, all sustaining some one 
proposition, this middle pause is then to follow each completed sentence, 
and the full pause, usually at the end of the sentence, is not to occur till 
the series is completed ; as, 

" Catiline has gone ; — he is fled ; — he has escaped ; — he has broken 
loose. — No longer in the city's wall, shall he plan her ruin. — We have 
forced him from hidden plot into open rebellion. — The bad citizen is now 
the open traitor." — Cicero. 

These different senses are closely connected as parts of one propo 
sition: " We are well rid of Catiline." The connection of sense requires 
correspondent connection by the voice through the middle pause. 

(p.) Where a proposition in one sentence is followed by its reason in 
another, the middle pause is between them ; as, 

" The mass of mankind can never feel an interest in abstractions. — - 
They must have images." 

Although a sentence ends at the word, " abstraction ," yet the full pause 
is not to be placed there, but the middle, because of the immediate 
connection in sense between that sentence and the one following it. 

(c.) Where two members follow, in one sentence, connected by con- 
struction yet not dependent, the middle pause is between them ; as, 



436 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Persons of good taste expect to be pleased at the same time they 
are informed ; — and think that the best sense always requires the best 



The middle pause should be after the word, " informed" 

(d.) Series of members, such as those with correspondent Syntactical 
Structure, take the middle pause between them ; as, in the example given 
previously, " walking among men — leaning on their bosoms" &c. ; " the 
prejudices of the Synagogue — the doubts of the Academy — the pride of the 
Portico" &c. In like manner : 

" The nicely-adjusted dress — the raven-tresses exquisitely braided — 
the fresh-plucked rose, gleaming among them like a gem — show that 
earth divides with Heaven the empire of her thoughts." — Irving. 

" A good disposition — virtuous principles — a liberal education — and 
industrious habits — are passports to happiness and honor." 

Every one is told by nature that pauses must be in these sentences 
where the dashes indicate them. 

(e.) The elements of reciprocal Sentential Structure, Inference, Subdi- 
vision, Opposition, Comparison, carried from one member to another, de- 
mand a pause between the members ; as, 

(1.) Inference. — "If the world is not the work of chance — it must 
have had an intelligent maker." 

(2.) Division. — "There are three functions for the supreme power; — 
to make law, to execute law, and to judge both the law by the Con- 
stitution, and the case by the law." 

(3.) Opposition. — " Oppose your Consuls and Generals — to that 
maimed and battered gladiator. Against that miserable and outcast 
horde — lead forth the strength and flower of all Italy." "Where no 
counsel is, the people fall — but in the multitude of counsellors there is 
safety." 

(4.) Comparison. — " Better is a dinner of herbs where love is — than 
a stalled ox and hatred therewith." 

The middle pause is not always required in such constructions. The 
extent of pause corresponds with the length of the member and the im- 
portance of the thought. But some pause is demanded by such a struc- 
ture between the two parts which reciprocate ; as, " though deep — yet 
clear." 

Such are the rules for the middle pause. 

SPECIAL RULES FOR SHORTER PAUSES. 

1026. The short pause is attached to clauses; the minute, to phrases. 



pauses: rules for the shorter. 437 

For simplicity, the two may be regarded together. They mark the 
modifications attached to the Subject or Predicate of a Proposition, 
such as were seen in the exercises under Logical Analysis, in all the 
ranks and lines below the first, (117, 118 to 122.) 

These modifications are, 1. By Syntactical Relation among the nine 
Parts of Speech ; 2. By Sentential Structure. 

Obs. — The same elements will be needed in fixing rules for Punctua- 
tion. 

I. Shorter Pausb, from Syntactical Relation. 

A. In Direct Order. 

The short pause (or the minute) is required : 

(1.) After a Nominative of more than one word; as, "The wise Creator — 
bestowed a faculty for speech." " The great and invincible Alexander — 
wept for the fate of Darius." 

(2.) Before an Infinitive Mood introducing a phrase or clause; as, "It 
is prudent in every man — to provide against the chances of accident." 

(3.) Before a Relative Pronoun; as, " A man cannot be obliged to sub- 
mit to any power, unless he can be satisfied — who is the person — who 
has a right to exercise it." "I am he — whom yo seek." 

(4.) Before a Conjunction and Conjunctive Adverb; as, "I desire the 
reader to remember — that I mean the pleasures arising from sight." 
" He will persevere — when satisfied of eventual success." 

(5.) Before Prepositions when introducing a phrase ; as, " Any single 
circumstances — of what we have formerly seen — often raises up a whole 
scene of imagery." " It is prudent — in every man." . . . 

(6.) After an Interjection ; as, "Hail — holy light!" 

B. In Inverted Order. 

The short pause (or the minute) is required : 

(1.) After the Objective, in inverted position; as, "By the influence of 
conscience — we are impelled toward duty." " To all remonstrance — he was 
deaf." " The counsels of prudence — he would not hear." 

(2.) Before an Adjective following the Substantive, and forming a de- 
scriptive phrase ; as, "He was a man — learned and polite" "It is a book 
— excellent in its kind.''' 1 

(3.) Before and after an emphatic Adverb following the Yerb, and before 
and after an adverbial phrase ; as, "He did not act — prudently — in one of 
the most important affairs of his life, and therefore could not expect to 
live — securely y These are emphatic Adverbs. 



438 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Mail is directed by nature, to correct — in some measure — that dis- 
tribution which she would otherwise have made." This is an example 
of the adverbial phrase. 

II. Shorter Pause, from Sentential Formation. 

This includes Apposition, the Case Independent (211, 4), Ellipsis (231), 
Parenthesis (904, b), Series (898, (2)), Quotation, Distinguished Words. 

The short pause is required : 

(1.) Between words and phrases in Apposition ; as, " "Wilt thou — 
Eternal Harmony — descend ?" "Cicero — the patriot — was proscribed." 

(2.) Before and after words having the Independent Case and con- 
struction; as, " If it be hurt or die — the owner thereof not being with it — 
he shall surely make it good." 

(3 ) Where Ellipsis occurs ; as, " A nation, once enslaved, may groan 
— ages — in bondage." " Reading makes a full man; conference — a ready 
man; writing — an exact man." 

(4.) Before and after a Parenthesis, or a parenthetic phrase interposed 
between a Nominative and its Verb, or between an Objective and its 
governing word ; as, 

" The women — who were allied to loth parties — interposed with many 
tears and entreaties." 

" He could distinguish — without seeing the color of the tea — the par- 
ticular sort which was offered him." 

(5.) After each short member in a series; as, " And now abideth — faith 
— hope — charity. " " Gentleness — goodness — faith — meekness — temperance. " 
"He came — saw — conquered." "Destitute — afflicted — tormented. 1 ' 1 "Pru- 
dence — Justice — Fortitude — Temperance — are cardinal virtues." 

(6.) Before a quotation; as, "He commended the maxim — 'Know 
thyself: " 

(T.) Before and after any word or phrase demanding special attention, 
and to be given emphatically ; as, " Well — honor — is — the subject of my 
story." 

Obs. — Before the following exercises, the remarks on Series, under 
Figures, should be in the mind. (898, (2).) 

Exercises. 
(1.) From a book containing selections from the best writers, read 
the sentences which fill at least two paragraphs. At first, read with- 
out the pauses, in order to exemplify the fault to be corrected. Then, 
beginning from the larger divisions (between the paragraphs), state whero 



ELEMENTS OF SOUND: PITCH. 439 

pauses are required, what pauses, and why. Do not yet try to give them, 
since the first step is merely to learn what ought to be, through contrast 
with what ought not to be. 

(2.) Beginning now from the smallest divisions read a single sentence, 
once rapidly, and with no pause. Then correct it by reading the same 
sentence in slow time with the short and minute pauses which are re- 
quired. If it be long enough for the middle pause, read it again, with 
attention to that middle pause. State the reasons for each. 

(3.) Proceed now in like manner to two sentences, placing the full 
pause between them, unless they are closely connected. Read several 
sentences in succession. If they be closely connected, put the middle 
between. State the reasons. 

(4.) Now acquire the full pause. Read from paragraph to paragraph, 
inserting it. Deliberately count, at first, between the paragraphs that 
you may establish this unit of pause in the mind. 

(5.) Next learn to give, the minute, short, middle, and full, their re- 
spective proportions of the unit. Read on, giving not only some pauses 
at the proper places, but the proportions with care. 

(6.) During all this Exercise leave other Elements of Elocution as 
Emphasis, Slide, Inflection, and the like, to nature and feeling. At the 
outset, take care of pause, and let other things take care of themselves. 
They can be attained afterward. But to make attainments, one thing 
must be under attention at one time. 



Sec. 2. — Elements of Sound. 

1027. After the intervals of silence are the Elements of Sound, which 
are three : Pitch, Time, and Force or Volume. 

1028. The primary demands for good enunciation of sentences, by 
these elements, are the same as for a good enunciation of single words. 
(768—772.) There must be erect posture, with the neck not contracted; 
dilated chest; breath drawn in, made full, and barred; the tongue drawn 
down; the mouth forming a hollow sphere (the os rotundum) with the 
lips just touching. All these conditions should be so observed as to 
present no unusual nor constrained appearance. 

(a.) Pitch. 

1029. Pitch is needed to express relations among the divi- 
sions of discourse ; relations of sense, or of emotion and will. 



440 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is necessary to have a few distinct ideas of pitch in order to direct 
the voice rightly in reading and speaking.* 

Such ideas are readily conceived by those who have learned music. 
Those who have not, can form them sufficiently for use with the speak- 
ing voice by the following process : 

SLIDES: CONCRETE MOVEMENT. 

1030. Look upon your open hand, and begin to contract the fingers. As you do 
so, contract correspondently the vocal chords within the mouth, as if those chords 
were fingers there, and as if the globe within the mouth were the hollow of tho 
hand. Continue the contraction till it is extreme, and then in that state of the 
vocal organs, breathe any vowel-sound, as EE, or 0, or AH. The high pitch for a 
vowel will be heard. 

Expand the fingers, and in like manner the chords, and when the latter are most 
elongated, breathe a vowel- sound, and low pitch will be heard. 

2sTow proceed to contract again, and at the beginning of the contraction begin 
the sound of the vowel. Continue that sound as the contraction goes on to its 
extreme point. You will hear what is called the rising slide, passing from low to 
high. It is the slide appropriated by nature to a question asked with surprise, as 
— " You?" It may be represented thus: -- — . 

Proceed reversely from contraction to expansion, with the sound of the vowel 
continued from the commencement to the end. The falling slide will be heard, 
passing from high to low. It is the slide associated by nature with positive as- 
sertion. It may be represented by the mark - — - . 

In the same manner the voice can pass on one vowel-sound in both directions, 
from high to low, and back again to high. The slide will be heard called the rising 

circumflex, which maybe represented by-- — . It is the natural expression of 

irony. 

If the movement be from low to high, and back to low, the slide is called the 
falling circumflex. It may be represented by —- — --. It is the natural expression 
of scorn. 

This alternating movement may be continued on the same syllable in one or 
more additional undulations. The slide is then called the compound circv/inflex. If 

the final movement be rising, it is named compound circumflex rising, as — ^-- —, 

and if falling, compound circumflex falling, as — -^-- ~.. 

The name of the circumflexes is from the terminating movement, whether rising 
or falling. 

In this manner any person can make for himself the slides heard on syllables in 
speech, and have a distinct conception of them. They are heard on syllables, be- 
cause on vowels, and the vowel is the soul of the syllable. 

The accompaniment of the hand should be laid aside, so soon as the chords can 
be managed by themselves, and pitch readily given. The object in the beginning 
is to assist the mind, voice, and ear, by the visible representation of correspondent 
movement in another organ. 

* Pitch should receive special attention from those who must speak or give orders 
in the open air, with noises around. For the sound to be well heard, the pitch of tho 
voice must be different from that of the interfering sound. 



pitch: concrete and discrete. 44! 

1031. Slides being thus understood, are seen to be continuous changes 
of pitch within syllables, under the influence of thought and feeling in the 
mind. 

1032. Slides receive the final and distinguishing part of their name 
from their final movement, whether rising or falling. When there is 
more than one movement they are called circumflex ; when more than 
two, the compound circumflex. 



STEPS: DISCRETE MOVEMENT. 

1033. There may be a similar movement of pitch, measured not within 
a syllable, but from one syllable, or word, to another, as by steps. 

(a.) Take any simple sentence, and sound each succeeding syllable 
and word higher, and the last highest ; as, 

T ride ?" 

"Shall L 

This ascending movement is called the rising step. It is the natural 
movement for questions and suspense. 

(b.) Sound each lower and the last lowest ; as, 

"No, 

This descending movement forms the falling step. It is naturally used 
for answers, commands, conclusions. 

(c.) Combine both movements in one sentence ; as, " Shall I ride, or 
shall I walk ?" The varied movement is called circumflex, and the ter- 
minating movement gives, as for slides, the distinguishing name. Cir- 
cumflex rising is from descent to ascent. Circumflex falling is the re- 
verse. This contrasted movement is natural for contrasts. 

(d.) Sound the words of some simple sentence all in one pitch, imita- 
ting the sound of a bell; as, "Deep: — low — tones — ring — loud — one 
— hour." This movement is called the monotone. It is naturally used 
when commencing the description of any thing sublime or awful. 

Rising steps are like the ascending of stairs ; falling, like the descend- 
ing ; circumflex, like both : monotone, like walking on the floor. 

1034. The movement of the voice by slides is called the concrete move- 
ment ; and that by steps, the discrete movement. The common name 
for both is that of Inflection, or Inflections of the Voice. The names given 
to varieties of the movement are alike. Hence, Inflections are rising (-— -), 
falling (^-), circumflex rising (-—.-<-), falling (——-.), circumflex com- 
pound, rising (- — -), falling (--— — — ), monotonic ( ). 

19* 



442 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND DISCRETE. 

1035. The general effect, in indicating merely the sense, is similar, 
whether the movement is by steps or slides. Thus, suspense in a sen- 
tence would be indicated by the rising movement of the voice, whether 
carried on from word to word, or only put as a slide in the vowel of the 
iast syllable ; as, 

, came' I met him v ;" 

" Wlien ne 
or, " When he came' .... I met himV 

But the whole effect in Elocution would not be the same. Nature de- 
mands that in the speaking voice there shall be both the step and the slide — 
both the discrete and concrete movement. In singing, the units of sound 
have one note. In speaking, when it is natural, there is a perpetual 
gliding from one degree of pitch to another. The slides form the dis- 
tinction of the movement of the voice in speech, from that in music. In 
monotonous and rapid reading, where there is no intention beyond that 
of uttering wprds, there are neither steps nor slides. The absence of 
natural inflections marks the distinction of what is commonly called the 
reading voice, from the movement heard in natural speaking. As good 
Elocution only follows nature, it must, like nature, combine both these 
discrete and concrete movements. 

1036. The learner, therefore, should acquire the slides separately, on 
vowel-sounds : then the steps separately, on successive words in sentences. 
He should do this at first without any regard to sense, in order to possess 
the materials out of which sound judgment and good taste are to make 
selections. Having acquired these separately, he should combine them 
in reading sentences. 

103*7. To simplify instruction, Inflection, (or general movement only,) 
will now be regarded. "Where the sense or feeling may specially demand 
the slide in the syllable, or the step in words, it can be specially observed. 
In other cases, the learner maybe safely left to himself; to nature, taste, 
and feeling. 

APPLICATION OF ELEMENTS TO SENTENCES. 

1038. Such being the Elements, they are to be applied in Elocution, to 
sentences and their parts ; to members, clauses, phrases, separated words. 

1039. Each of these is supposed to have its pause, and that pause, its 
proper proportion. The movement of the voice as regards pitch, be- 
tween one pause and another, forms the inflection for the interval of speech 
between those pauses, whether the interval be long or short. 



pitch: alternating movement. 443 

1040. In applying these Elements to Sentences, there is a simple prin- 
ciple fixed by nature. It is, that the terminating* movement of the inflec- 
tion in any interval of speech, heard at the pause, declares the sense and 
connection intended for that interval. For example, in a question, the final 
movement is rising ; as, " Did you see him' t" The previous part of the 
movement expresses the emotion belonging to that interval, as we may 
say with surprise, "Did you x see him' V 1 This ends, as before, with a 
rising movement, but a circumflex movement is given to the previous 
portion by the feeling with which we speak the words. 

1041. If there be no emotion to be expressed, the previous part of 
the movement is left free for that course of the voice, which is most easy 
for him who speaks, and most pleasing for him who hears. That course 
is by the circumflex. The undulating movement of the voice relieves 
the speaker most. Holding the voice at one pitch, wearies the vocal 
chords, as .holding the arm out for a long time, tires the muscles. The 
natural change of pitch in steps and slides is more easy for the chords, 
through action and by perpetual change in degrees of tension, as it is 
more easy to walk for an hour than to hold the leg extended for that 
length of time. This change of tension also assists in drawing breath 
without effort, f The same movement is more agreeable to the hearer, 
since the ear demands variety, and is wearied with monotony. 

1042. The result is, that in all natural and agreeable speaking, there is an 
undulating movement of the voice. As Elocution should follow nature, 
this same movement should appear in reading and in public speaking. 

Accordingly, in every interval of speech, the sense is marked at the 
end of that interval, by the final movement, which is, (1.) For completed 
sense, falling ; (2.) For suspended sense, rising. But (3.) Emotion, and 
the demands of breath and euphony, are marked in the previous part 
of the interval, by both movements combined, and most usually, alter- 
nating. 

1043. Hence, the falling movement belongs (with the full pause), (1.) to 
the close of the paragraph or sentence. (2.) It belongs (with some pause 
dependent on the degree of feeling) to the Interjection, because that rep- 
resents a sentence. (3.) It belongs (with the middle pause) to serial 
sentences closely connected. In such cases it marks termination. (4.) 
It belongs (with some pause) to any single word, designed by the speak- 

* Alway, " the end of speech is more than the beginning." 

t Persons who speak in public with the natural movements of the voice can 
speak much more, without disease, than others, and much longer at one time, with- 
out fatigue. 



444 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

er's will and feeling to be specially impressed on the attention,* as, "I 
did no? say so." In this case, it marks positiveness and distinction in 
affirmation. (5.) It belongs to the Interrogative Pronoun or interrogative 
word; as, "Why x did you go ?" (6.) To an exclamation ; as, "How won- 
derful is man" /" 

Exercise, — Read several sentences in this or any book, with especial 
attention (while observing pause) to the downward or falling inflection. 

Select sentences with the Interjections, and give them tho same in- 
flection ; as, "EaiV! holy light." Make sentences in a supposed conver- 
sation, where a word receives the downward slide of positive assertion ; 
as, " I will — never" — consent." Make sentences with the Interrogative 
Pronoun. Make them with exclamations. 

1044. The rising inflection belongs, with the middle pause, to the 
Protasis, and members suspensive of sense. It belongs, with the short, 
or with the minute pause to the end of clauses and phrases which are 
suspensive. In all these cases it marks suspense. It belongs also to 
interrogation, when without the interrogative particle or Pronoun; as, 
" Do you know him' ?" — rising; but with the particle, falling, as, " When x 
did you know^ him ?" 

1045. Exercise. — Read the examples given under Pause, with refer- 
ence now to the rising inflection. With the proper pauses, give the 
rising inflection. 

1. In the reciprocal sentence ; 

(a). At the end of the Protasis; as at "Memory' " "prejudice ," "grow'" 
(1025, 1.) 

(&.) At the end of the member; as, at " Moving'." (1025, 1.) 

2. In clauses and phrases ; 

(a.) With the compound Nominative ; as, " The great and invincible 
Aloxmder' — wept for the fate of Darius." (102 6, A. 1.) 

(&.) Before the Infinitive ; as, " It is prudent in every man' — to pro- 
vide." (1026, A. 2.) 

(c.) Before the Relative Pronoun ; as, " Unless he can be satisfied' — who 
is the man." .... (1026, A. 3.) 

(d.) Before Conjunctions ; as, " I desire the reader to remember' — that 
I mean." .... (1026, A. 4.) 

(e.) Before Prepositions ; as, " Any single circumstances' — of what we 
have formerly seen." (1026, A. 5.) 

(/.) After the inverted Objective ; as, "By the influence of conscience' — 
we are impelled." .... (1026, B. 1.) 

* Forcible emphasis. 



pitch: rules for inflections. 445 

(g.) Before a descriptive phrase; as, "He was a man' — learned and 
polite." (1026, B. 2.) 

(/*.) Before an adverbial phrase : as, " To correct' — in some measure — 
that distribution." .... (1026, B. 3.) 

{%.) When a word in apposition has the same inflection ; as, " Cicero' — 
the patriot' — was proscribed." (1026, II., 1.) 

(j.) With the Independent Case ; as, " The owner thereof not being with 
it':' . . . (1026, II., 2.) 

(k.) With a Parenthesis suspensive ; as, " The women', who were allied 
to both parties'," &c. . . . (1026, II, 4.) 

(I.) With Ellipsis suspensive ; as, " Reading makes a fall man ; con- 
ference' — a ready man ; writing' — an exact man." (1026, II., 3.) 

(m.) At the last word of a commencing series ; as, " Prudence — Jus- 
tice — Fortitude — Temperance' — are cardinal virtues." (1026, II., 5.) 

Such are rules for the rising inflection. 

1046. The circumflex movement is either for the expression of emotion 
and will, or it is for euphony, and for relief to the speaker's vocal organs. 

The following directions result : 

(1.) Throw into the sentence as many downward movements as will 
not injure the expression of the sense or feeling. The reason is evident. 
Keeping the voice up, in the sentence, as is usually done in reading, 
causes one prevailing movement, which produces fatigue and monotony. 
Let the learner read from a book and make examples for himself. 

(2.) Where an alternating movement in successive words, clauses, and 
members will not injure the expression of the sense or feeling, yield to 
the natural tendency to give that upward and downward movement. 

For example : take the words, " The sting of death is sin." The 
compound nominative before is, requires, as we have seen, the pause, 
with the rising inflection, on the last word, death. But as this fixes the 
sense, we can throw a downward slide on the previous word, sting. 
Again the word sin, terminating the sense and sentence, has the down- 
ward slide. The previous word, is, may then receive the rising slide, 
without marring the sense. 
, The reading will then stand thus : 

The sting v of death' — is' sin\ 

Reason, — Such a movement is natural, and is more pleasing for both 
speaker and hearer. 

(3.) A commencing series has the rising movement on its last member 
or word, the alternating or downward movement, modified by taste and 
feeling, on the previous members or words. 



446 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A concluding series has the descending movement on its last mem- 
ber or word ; the alternating movement, modified by taste and feeling, on 
the parts preceding : 

" Prudence", Justice!, Fortitude", Temperance' — are cardinal virtues." 
" Now abideth — Faith\ Rope, Charity"" " The figure' of Deatfr ; the regal 
crown' upon his head} ; the menace' of Satan" ; the outcry"" at his birth' — 
are noble circumstances." 

If the series be numerous, divide them mentally into groups, and give 
variety, according to taste and feeling. In the commencing series, let 
the downward movement preponderate. 

(1.) "Neither death' nor life'", (2.) nor angels\ nor principalities' ', nor 
powers\ (3.) nor things present' nor things to come", (4.) nor height', nor 
depth}, nor any other creature' — shall be able to separate us from the love 
of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord." 

In the concluding series, the last of each group may take the down- 
ward movement, and the others a variety ; as, 

U The fruit of the Spirit — is, (1.) love', joy', peace", (2.) long-suffering* \ 
gentleness', goodness 1 " (3.) faith', meekness', temper ance\" 

Obs. — Let it be remembered that the purpose proposed for attain- 
ment is, to be varied and natural. If the alternations be made perfectly 
uniform in all sentences, the very faults to be shunned will be incurred. 
The movement will want variety, and will be artificial. Be careful not 
to give such uniformity of movement, that a person hearing the sen- 
tence begun, can predict the sweep of the voice. Leave much to nature 
and to the feeling of the moment. 

(4.) Contrast in the sense requires contrast in the movement of the 
voice ; identity of sense, as in apposition, identity of movement : as, 

Contrast: "He that is not for' me — is against^ me." Apposition: 
" He lived in Ithaca\ a rocky islandV 

Contrast may be implied. In that case the rising movement marks 
that the sense is unfinished ; as, "I did not want to hear you sing' the 
words;" (suggesting, " I did want you to say them"). 

The negative part of the contrast takes the rising, and the positive, 
the falling movement; as, "I said, ride\ not walk'." "I wanted a pen\ 
not a pencil'." "It was not a slate' that I wanted" (implying that some- 
thing else was wanted). 

Such are rules for movements in pitch. We next consider pitch more 
generally. 

1047. Pitch may be applied to a syllable, a word, a sentence, groups 
of sentences, discourse. 



pitch: key: time. 447 

Applied within a syllable it forms, as we have seen, the slides, or 
concrete movement ; applied from word to word, steps, or discrete move- 
ment ; applied to successive sentences, heads, and a whole discourse, it 
forms Key. 

The keys, as we have seen, are middle, loud, and high. 

1048. The middle is mainly for sense. Hence, it is natural for nar- 
ration, calm description, statement, moral reflection, reasoning, when not 
impassioned. 

1049. The two other keys (low and high), are for emotion and will. 
The emotions are of two principal kinds ; those which elevate, and those 
which depress, the lines of the face by the animal spirits. Each of these 
is subdivided, as it expands or contracts the muscles of eye, face, and vo- 
cal organs. 

(a.) The high pitch is natural for the elevating passions. Such are 
joy, hope, exultation^ boldness, anger. 

There will be volume and slow time, where the objects of these emo- 
tions are great and sublime, so as to give a sense of expansion in the 
feelings. 

Animated narration, vivid description, will naturally run into a higher 
key. 

(b.) Low pitch is natural for the depressing and subduing passions. 
Such are grief, pity, disappointment, dejection, despair, melancholy, hate, 
remorse. 

Where the object of the emotion is sublime, as in admiration; or 
beautiful, as in love ; or good, as in esteem or admiration ; or great and 
good, as in veneration ; the feelings will be expanded, and hence, with a 
low pitch, there will be soft tones and slower time, with swelling volume 
in the syllables. 

(&.) Time. 

1050. Time may be applied to single syllables, to words, clauses, mem- 
bers, sentences, paragraphs, a whole discourse. 

Slow time applied to syllables marks the long vowels, as distinguished 
from the short ; for example, the proper sound of 00, in moor, as distin- 
guished from the same sound in book. 

It prepares syllables for receiving volume. 

1051. Applied to words, clauses, and discourse generally, slow time 
is suited to impress certain parts on the attention, or to express sublime 
objects, or emotions that expand the feelings. 



448 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(c.) Force, or Volume. 

1052. The word, volume, is safer for the pupil in Elocution, than the 
word, force. "When he hears of force, his first idea is that of muscular 
effort. He makes that effort, and at once throws out, and so loses 
breath. But the primary want for speaking forcibly, is abundance of 
breath. The same difficulty does not attend the use of the word, force, 
in music. The constant effort in music to keep pitch, secures against a 
like exhaustion of breath. 

1053. To give the voice the degrees of volume, there must be a full 
supply of breath, which must be resupplied at the pauses and intervals, 
before it is exhausted. The greater the volume, the louder is the 
speaking, and the louder that is, the more must be the care to have in- 
tervals, and to use them. 

If the speaking be both loud and quick, exhaustion must ensue. 

Military men, and those who speak to numbers in the open air or in 
large buildings, should ever keep in mind the following observation : 

A person is heard through a large space, not according to the amount 
of muscular straining, but according to the amount of breath which he 
puts into each vowel of his syllables. A steam-whistle sounds equally 
loud a mile off, as near it. The voice of a speaker using his voice well, 
does not seem over-loud when near, and yet is well heard afar. 

1054. Volume or force may be applied to single syllables in a word ; or 
to single words in a sentence ; or to single sentences in a paragraph ; or 
to a whole head of discourse. 

1055. Applied to a single syllable in a word, it forms Accent. This 
has been sufficiently explained. Applied with slow time, to the middle 
of a syllable, it forms the swell ; as, ro-ott. 

1056. Volume applied to a single word in a sentence forms Emphasis. 
Emphasis is for a word in a sentence, what Accent is for a syllable. 

1057. Emphasis is of two kinds, the common, and the strong. 

(a.) The common emphasis is the utterance of a word in a sentence 
more loudly than the others, but without changing the inflection belong- 
ing to the sentence, or interval. It indicates sense only, but not will and 
feeling. 

11 Shall you ride to town, to-day?" " Shall you ride to town, to-day ?" 
" Shall you ride to town, to-day?" " Shall you ride to town, to-day f 

The emphasis is here seen to indicate the sense, and the change of 
emphasis, change of sense. The emphasis indicates something implied 
which is to be contrasted with the word emphasized, or distinguished 



emphasis: volume: gesture. 449 

from it. To that question, with the emphasis on you, the answer might 
be : " No, /shall not ride, but my friend." With the emphasis on ride, 
it might be : " No, I shall walk ;" with it on town, it might be : " No, I 
goto the country; 11 with it on day, it might be: " No, to-morrow. 11 

(6.) The strong emphasis is the utterance of a word more loudly than 
the others, but irrespective of the movement in the interval, with a slide 
of its own, usually the falling. 

It indicates not the sense only, but will and feeling ; as, 
"Do you think that I will — ever — accept such terms?" "Mercy is 
— above — this sceptred sway." 

1058. Force or Volume applied to groups of Sentences indicates the 
emotion and will of the speaker. The same remarks, that were given 
under Key, apply to its use. 

1059. Farther details on this subject belong to works on Elocution, 
and to Rhetoric. 

Exercise. — Read sentences, applying all the Rules. 

Gesture. 

1060. As Declamation implies Gesture, a brief statement is demanded 
in this part of the Course. 

(a.) Gesture is for the eye. The speaking is for the ear. It is seen in 
motions, or expression ; the one being by the members of the body — hands, 
arms, trunk, head ; the other, by the eye and face. 

(6.) The great rule is, to take care of the expression of eye and face first of 
all Call up before the mind, the emotion to be expressed, and its images. 
Give the correspondent expression to eye and face. That condition of 
the eye and face will, with the supposed state of mind, produce spon- 
taneously, a tendency to the right key, to the time, the force, and even to the 
right character in Gesture, 



Transition. 
1061. In passing now from Elocution to Punctuation, let it be observed 
that the Elements of Elocution are combined and used, for separation, 
subordination, and relation, (1013, 101G, 1029,) among the divisions 
of speech. The same purposes will be found to belong to Punctuation. 



450 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Punctuation. 

1062. Punctuation is that branch of Grammar which treats 
of the correct marking of sentences (815) when written. 

1063. In its relations to Elocution, it is for the eye, what Elocution is 
for the ear ; an assistance, through the senses, for the ready reception 
of the sentence in the mind. 

Punctuation and Elocution mutually assist each other. Children 
should be guided by the first to the second. But mature minds, while 
using both for mutual assistance, should begin with the sense, as re- 
garded by Elocution. 

1064. Tlie twenty -second attainment in language is ability to punctuate 
sentences properly in writing them, and to receive some direction from the 
points in reading them. 

The deficiency to be obviated is ignorance of the marks used in 
writing. 

The ensuing explanations are designed for this attainment. 

1065. Punctuation comes under the general law which applies to 
language in all its divisions. It is founded on usage. The usage is 
that of printers and authors. This usage is guided by analogy and prin- 
ciples. (726, and last part of Note to Chapter I.) 

(a.) In analogy, Punctuation is guided mostly by Elocution, and in 
principles, by the purposes proposed. But its analogies reach remotely 
through language. 

(b.) The simple purpose of Punctuation is, to distinguish what needs 
to be distinguished for the eye of a reader. As accent distinguishes the 
syllable which needs to be distinguished ; and emphasis, the word ; and 
the line, the divisions of poetry: so Punctuation marks the divisions 
of discourse written. It uses the means necessary for this purpose but 
no more. Hence the tendency of usage in it is ever toward simplicity. 

1066. It has specific purposes common to it with Elocution. It indi- 
dicates, separation, subordination, and relation among the divisions 
of discourse. (1061.) 



punctuation: general view. 451 

1067. The materials it employs for its purposes are Spaces and 
Signs. 

Sec. 1. — Spaces with Signs. 

1068. Spaces are used for separation. They are placed between words, 
sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters. (1013.) 

(a.) The space at the end of a paragraph corresponds to the long 
pause in Elocution. That pause in that place should be made in delib- 
erate reading. 

(b.) Spaces with Signs are used for separation. 

(c.) As the Sentence in Expression is the unit, in written discourse, it 
receives separation by a dot at the end, a capital letter at the beginning, 
and a small space both before and after it ; as, " Prove all things. Hold 
fast that which is good. Abstain from all appearance of evil." 

Sec. 2. — Signs. 

1069. Signs are recurrent or miscellaneous. The recurrent are those 
constantly needed in writing sentences ; the miscellaneous are those less 
frequently needed and employed for miscellaneous indications. 

1070. The principal recurrent signs for sense and construction are four. 
They are the Period ( . ), the Colon ( : ), the Semicolon ( ; ), the Comma ( , ). 
Those which indicate the relation of the sentence to the hearer, or to 
the emotion of the speaker are two : the Note of Interrogation ( ? ), and the 
Note of Exclamation (I). Subordinate signs for sense are the Bash ( — ), 
the Parenthesis ( ), the Brackets [ ]. 

1071. In a general view of the four principal signs for sense and con- 
struction : 

(a.) The Period marks completed sense and construction. It corres- 
ponds to the full pause and falling inflection at the end of a sentence in 
Elocution. 

(b.) The three others ( : ; ,) mark sense and construction not completed. 
They correspond to the middle, short, and minute pauses. 

1072. Separation is thus made of what is from what is not completed. 
In reading, the Punctuation by these marks should aid the Elocution. 

In writing, the conception of the Elocution should aid the Punctuation. 

1073. Subordination is made by the colon, semicolon, and comma, 
when used in long sentences. They indicate the greater, smaller, and 
smallest divisions ; the protasis, by the colon ; the members, by the 
semicolon ; the clauses and phrases, by the comma ; as, 

" If I have any genius, which I am sensible can be but very 
small; or any readiness in speaking, in which I do not deny that I have 



452 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

been much conversant ; or any skill in oratory, from an acquaintance 
with the best arts, to which I confess I have been always inclined : no 
one has a better right to demand of me the fruit of all these things, than 
this Aulus Licinius." — Cicero. 

Another example is in a sentence, already used under Elocution : 

" As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did 
not perceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though 
nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as 
they consist in such minute steps, are only perceivable by the distance 
gone over." 

The Colon, Semicolon, and Comma, in these examples indicate the prin- 
cipal and smaller divisions ; as at "grow" " moving" " dial" in the latter. 

Obs. — (1.) Punctuation does not indicate all the pauses required in 
Elocution. Only those are used which are necessary. Only those are 
necessary which are essential for guiding the mind through the eye. 
When a sentence is spoken, there are intervals required for breath, com- 
prehension, or impression, which are not demanded when the same 
sentence is read. Thus, in the sentence just given, there are more mi- 
nute pauses in good reading than commas in the Punctuation. 

Obs. — (2.) Rules for punctuation cannot be made definite for all cases. 
The rules are modified on the one side by usage, and on the other by 
the intention of the writer. 

1074. Relation is also expressed by these same marks. 

To see how they express relation, a more particular view of them is 
required. 

The common rules for using these marks will be included, even when 
more than relation is indicated. 

Period. 

10T 5. Sentences, complete in sense, and not connected either in 
meaning or syntactical construction, are separated by a Period. 

A Period must be used at the end of all paragraphs, sections, chapters, 
and books ; also, after all abbreviations ; as, A. M., B. C, Sec. 3, N. Y., 
J. Milton. 

Colon. 

10*76. The Colon is used to indicate those parts of a sentence which 
are connected in sense but not in syntactical construction; as, "Herein 
I give my advice : for this is expedient for you." The Colon thus indi- 
cates Relation. 



punctuation: colon: semicolon. 453 

But the law of subordination affects this rule and modifies it. LTenco, 
the semicolon is frequently used where the rule just given would demand 
the colon. Usage also modifies it. The colon is less employed in pres- 
ent than it was in former usage. 

Semicolon. 

1077. The Semicolon is used to indicate those parts of a sentence 
which are connected both in sense and in syntactical construction ; as, 

" The philosopher, the saint, and the hero ; the wise, the good, or the 
great man; very often lie hid and concealed in a plebeian, whom a 
proper education might have disinterred and brought to light." 

"And beside this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue; and 
to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ;" &c 

Colon or Semicolon for the same Relations. 

1078. (1.) The Colon or Semicolon is used with the materials of recip- 
rocal sentential structure, which are, Reasoning, Division, or Contrast. 

Hence the colon or semicolon is used in the following cases : 

(a.) In the reciprocal suspensive sentence, when the reason follows 
the proposition ; as, " The world must have had an intelligent maker : 
for it is not the work of chance." 

If we make this sentence suspensive by putting the reason first, we 
express an inference, and should insert a comma ; as, " If the world be not 
the work of chance, it must have had an intelligent maker." (1025, e. 1.) 

(b.) In divisions (1025, e. 2); as, "The faults opposed to the sublime 
are chiefly two : -the frigid, and the bombast." " There are five moods ; 
the infinitive, indicative, potential, subjunctive, imperative." But if the 
word, namely, be introduced, the comma is used. 

Obs. — A quotation introduced without syntactical dependence on the 
Verb, comes under the same view with divisions, and is therefore pre- 
ceded by a colon or semicolon; as, "He quoted this ancient maxim: 
'Know thyself. 1 " With dependence on the Yerb, the comma would be used: 
as, " The motto was, onward." 

(c.) In contrasts (1025, e. 3); as, "Where no counsel is, the people 
fall : but in the multitude of counsellors there is safety." 

(2.) The colon or semicolon is used in the serial sentence, or loose 
structure, where the assertion is complete, but an additional remark is 
added ; as, " All superiority that one man can have over another may 
be reduced to the notion of quality; which, considered at large, is either 
that of fortune, body, or mind." 
' (3.) The colon or semicolon is used in the serial structure where sev- 



454 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eral short sentences follow one another closely connected, as supporting 
one proposition or belonging to one subject. It is, however, at the 
writer's option, whether to make them many distinct Sentences in Ex- 
pression or one ; as, " The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero ; 
tragedy represents a disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and 
follies of mankind ; pastoral poetry describes rural life ; and elegy dis- 
plays the tender emotions of the heart." 

This is punctuated as one sentence. Some writers would prefer mak- 
ing five distinct Sentences of Expression ; as, 
" The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero." 
" Tragedy represents a disastrous event." 
" Comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind." 
(4.) In deciding whether to use a colon or semicolon, the question is 
often determined by the absence or presence of the Conjunction or con- 
necting word. 

When the Conjunction or connecting word is not expressed before the 
following member, which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, 
the colon is used ; but when the Conjunction is expressed, the semi- 
colon;* as, "Seek your improvement : it will bring you happiness." — 
" Seek your improvement ; for it will bring you happiness." 

Comma, 
general use. 
10*79. Rule 1. — The comma is not used in a very short simple sentence, 
even when in slow reading there might be the minute pause ; as, " The 
wages of sin is death." 

R. 2. — The comma is in analogy with the shorter pauses in Elocution, 
and is used generally (with the exception just made) where they are re- 
quired. 

COMMA WITH THE ELEMENTS OP SENTENTIAL STRUCTURE. 

R. 3. — In short sentences, the comma is used between the parts formed 
by an Inference, Comparison, or Contrast (1025, e.) 

(a.) With Inference; as, " If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy 
strength is small." (1025, e. 1.) 

(b.) With Comparison; as, " Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, 
than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." (1025, e. 4.) 

(c.) With Contrast; " As deceivers, and yet true ; as unknown, and yet 

* Bullion. 



punctuation: use of comma. 455 

well known ; as dying, and behold, we live ; as chastened, and not killed j 
as sorrowful, yet alway rejoicing." (1025, e. 3.) 

WITH SYNTACTICAL RELATION. 

R. 4. — The comma is used with the compound Nominative, before 
the Verb; as, "Resistance calmly made to the currents of adversity, is 
the mark of a steadfast mind." (1026, A. 1.) 

R. 5.— The comma is used before the Infinitive Mood, when, though 
itself the subject of a Yerb, it is placed after the Yerb ; as, " It is prudent 
in every man, to provide against the chances of accidents (1026, A. 2.) 

R. 6. — The comma is used before a Relative Pronoun (unless it be 
closely connected with the antecedent) ; as, " He cannot exalt his thoughts 
to any thing great and noble, who has no sublime motive to inspire him." 
" Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." (1026, A. 3.) 

R. 7. — The comma is used, unless there be close connection, before 
Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs, and also on each side of them 
when they have no close dependence on some one word; as, "I desire 
the reader to remember, that I mean the pleasures derived from sight." 
" He will persevere steadfastly, when satisfied of eventual success." 
"We must not, however, confound the latter with the former." (1026, A. 4.) 

R. 8. — The comma is used before a Preposition introducing a phrase 
or breaking the connection between words preceding and following ; as, 
"Yirtue is, for the greater part, a path of self-denial." (1026, A. 5.) 

R. 9. — The comma is often used with the Interjection ; as, " For, lo, I 
will call all the families of the kingdoms." (1026. A. 6.) 

WITH INVERTED ORDER. 

R. 10. — The comma is used with the inverted Objective ; as, "By 
learning history, we add the experience of others to our own. (1026, B. 1.) 

R. 11. — The comma is used with the detached Adjective, (including 
the Participle,) when following the Substantive, and forming a descriptive 
phrase ; as, " The roots of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream." " The 
actions of his life, directed and restrained by the highest principles, were 
heroic." (1026, B. 2.) 

An exception exists when the qualifying word or phrase immediately 
follows its Noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense ; as, " A man re- 
noiunedfor repartee," but not "A man, renowned for repartee." 

R. 12. — The comma is often used with the detached Adverb following 
the Yerb, and with an adverbial phrase, unless taken in a restrictive 
sense and with close connection; as, "To resist, and that, successfully, 
we must not fail to stand, unitedly." 



456 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Man is directed by nature, to correct, in some measure, that distribu- 
tion." (1026, B. 3.) 

WITH MODES OF SENTENTIAL FORMATION. 

R. 13. — The comma is used after Substantives in apposition; as, 
" Cicero, the eloquent orator, the pure patriot, was proscribed." (1026, 
II, 1.) 

But if there be but a single word in apposition, or if the words form 
one name, the comma is not inserted; as, "Paul the Apostle." "The 
Emperor Napoleon." "The river Don." "Ye men of Athens." "I 
made the ground my bed." " Marcus Tullius Cicero." 

R. 14. — The comma is used with the independent construction (248) ; 
as, "The prince, his father being dead, assumed the crown." "To do 
him justice, he was truthful." "Come hither, Hubert." "His campaign 
in Greece, what did it produce?" " If it be hurt or die, the owner not be- 
ing with it," &c (1026. II., 2.) 

R. 15. — The comma is used with ellipsis, specially with that of the 
verb ; as, " Reading makes a full man ; conference, a ready man." "From 
law arises justice; from justice, security." (1026, II., 3.) 

R. 16. — The comma is used with a parenthetic phrase breaking the 
connection ; as, " The women, who were allied to both parties, inter- 
posed." " To do good, if we have the opportunity, is our duty." (R. 6 & 7 .) 
(1026, II, 4.) 

R. 17. — The comma is used after the words of a series, when they 
are more than two; as, "He came, saw, conquered, fell" The same 
rule, of course, applies to words repeated ; as, " Happy, happy, happy 
pair." (1026, II, 5.) 

Obs. — If the Conjunction be omitted, the Rule for Ellipsis (the 15th) 
applies, and the comma is used ; as, " He is a downright, sincere man." 
But if the Conjunction be expressed, and the words of the series are but 
two, the comma is not used; as, "He is a downright and sincere man." 

If the words of the series should be more than two, the comma is used 
by the Rule ; as, "Architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry are 
aesthetic arts." 

But the last word of a series is not usually separated by a comma 
from that word to which it is grammatically connected ; as, " Lycurgus 
was & far-seeing, wise, and firm legislator" 

R. 18. — The comma is used between words in pairs, united in pairs 
by a Conjunction ; as, " Hope and fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our 
lives." 



punctuation: interrogation, etc. 457 

R. 19. — The comma is used between the parts of a short sentence, 
compound in analysis, but one as written ; as, " He speaks eloquently, 
and he acts wisely." 

Hence, the comma is used between a series of clauses of like con- 
struction, when short; as, "The prejudices of the Synagogue, and the 
doubts of the Academy, and the swords of thirty legions, were humbled 
in the dust." 

R. 20 — The comma is used with a quotation made dependent on a 
verb ; as, " He said to me, come." 

Such are the principal recurrent signs for sense and construction : the 
Period, the Colon, the Semicolon, the Comma. The references will show 
the analogy with Elocution. 

Note op Interrogation. 

1080. The Note of Interrogation (?) is put at the end of a direct 
question; as, " Who is he ?" But the indirect question does not require 
the sign; as, " The people asked, who is he." 

The interrogation expresses the relation of the sentence to the person 
addressed. A question is regarded as a completed sentence, and the 
note of interrogation as equal to a period. 

Exclamation. 

1081. The Note of Exclamation (!) is used after expressions of emo- 
tion, and frequently in invocations and addresses ; as, "How wonderful is 
man! 11 "Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought." 

Oh, has the mark immediately after it, or after the next word ; as, 
" Oh 1 that he may live." But when is used, the point is placed after 
some intervening words ; as, " you hard hearts !" 

The exclamation expresses the relation of the sentence to the emo- 
tion of the speaker. 

Op the Subordinate Signs for Sense and Construction. 

1082. (a.) The Dash ( — ) is used where the sentence breaks off ab- 
ruptly ; also to denote a significant pause, or a change in construction, or 
a reference to several parts in common which have gone before ; as, 

"He said—." " Behold the picture !-— is it like ?— like whom ?" "The 
army, the navy, the courts, the family, the temple— all are to feel the 
effects of this law." 

(b.) Parenthesis (904, b.) includes a clause inserted in the body of a 
sentence ; as, ' Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know 
the law,) how that the law hath dominion ?" 
20 



458 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the Elocution, the parenthetic part should be read in an altered 
mode of speaking, and usually in quicker time and lower key than the 
rest. 

The comma is now frequently used where the parenthesis was formerly 
employed. 

(c.) Brackets [ ] generally enclose some correction or explanation; as, 

He [the speaker] held to another sentiment." 

Such are the recurrent marks. 

Obs. — In preparing matter for the press, the punctuation may be left 
to printers, as they fix usage, and follow a uniform system ; unless the 
writer has some peculiar meaning which he wishes to indicate by pe- 
culiar punctuation. 

In ordinary writing, the care should rather be to avoid any gross 
faults, than to exemplify every rule. 

1083. The miscellaneous marks are, the Apostrophe ('), Quotation 
Marks ( " " ), Points (....), Continuation ( &c. ), Hyphen ( - ), Section ( § ), 

Paragraph ( *[f ), {Brace ( — ^ ), Ellipsis ( ), Caret ( A ), Index ( fo^~ ), 

Di&resis ( •• ), Accent ( ' x A ), Long and Short ( — <— '), Marks of Reference 
( * t> Xi II )» an d figures ( l > 2 > 3 ), referring to the bottom of the page. 

For explanations of them, reference can be made to the Appendix. 

Exercise. 

1. Insert the proper marks of punctuation in sentences from which 
they have been purposely omitted ; as, 

Eeasons whole pleasure all the joys of sense 

Lie in three words health peace and competence Pope 

2. Read sentences from a book, and give the rule for each mark em- 
ployed. 



composition: written and oral. 459 



CONCLUSION. 

1084. The four parts of Grammar, formed by Sentences or "Words, 
constructed or represented, have now been examined. The first purpose 
in all these parts is, to teach the learner how to speak or write in hi3 
own language. The second is, to give preparation and assistance for 
other studies. 

For the first purpose there must be practice in Composition. For the 
second, there must be a permanent recollection of those principles of 
Grammar which have been learned, and which furnish an introduction 
to other branches of education. 

I. Composition. 

1085. That the pupil may attain the first of these objects, he should 
now add daily exercise in Composition. 

Mere recitation from the Grammar, followed by forgetfulness, will pro- 
duce no permanent acquisition. But constant practice by the guidance 
of the principles which have been stated, will produce an endowment 
within him, lasting as his life. He will be ever able to write and speak 
in his native tongue, correctly, easily, and well.* 

• 
Written and Oral Composition. 

exercises, not systematic. 

1086. Composition is written or oral. The oral is usually called, ex- 
temporaneous speaking, f 

The written prepares for the oral. The pen (or pencil) furnishes drill- 
ing for the tongue. 

1087. The required habits must be formed by practice on subjects per* 
fectly familiar. After the habits are formed, those less familiar may bt* 
taken. This is an essential rule. The custom of requiring written com- 

* A military officer must write. Evidently, he should do so without fault 
t Extemporaneous speaking^ but not extemporaneous thinking. 



460 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

positions, on abstract subjects, without any previous instruction on the 
selection of words, on the forms of sentences, and on the mode of divid- 
ing subjects, (all which have now been carefully explained, so far as they 
belong to Grammar,) is a departure from the proper order. It is better 
than no practice, but as a method of training, is essentially imperfect. 

1088. Let the learner, then, who wishes earnestly for the best gifts, 
observe the directions that follow. 

1. For Writing: 

Let him daily write abstracts of his different studies, or in a journal 
of daily occurrences, or in a letter. 

In the act of writing he should have no thought of correction, but 
proceed without cessation as the thoughts flow. But the next day let 
him look over what he has previously written. Let him mark and clas- 
sify, mentally, the forms of his sentences ; conceive the other forms into 
which the same propositions may be cast ; and decide whether the form 
he gave was, or was not, the best. Let him pursue a like process with 
his words : marking them, classifying them, conceiving of the synonyms, 
and then deciding whether, from the group of words kindred in signifi- 
cation, he selected the best. In both sentences and words, there should 
be constant reference to the classifications of both, given in this Gram- 
mar. 

So important is this daily attention that Cicero, after he had studied in 
Greece, never omitted, on a single day, a similar kind of practice. 

"When, by this revision of his own writing, he detects a particular de- 
ficiency in himself, let him note it and proceed to remove it. Let him 
keep a list of such faults. For example ; he finds that he repeats the 
same word too often. Let him then trace that word up to its place and 
category, in the Dictionary of Significations,* mark all the synonymous 
words there, and fix the best in his memory. The fact that he repeats 
a word, indicates that his phraseology is too limited in the group to which 
that word belongs. Let him then remove his poverty in that particular, 
and become more wealthy in the words he carries for constant use. 

2. For Speaking: 

After a conversation, let him remember what was said by him and 
what by the other person or persons. Let him then consider in what 
words, and in what kinds of sentences, the propositions (sentiments) 
were expressed. Let him mark how these words and sentences could 
have been varied. In what he himself said, let him observe how the 

* That is called by Roget, the " Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases." 



composition: exercises. 461 

same proposition could have been expressed in a better way. If any 
happy turn fell from another, let him treasure it for use. 

This was a constant practice with Demosthenes after every conversa- 
tion, during his period of training. 

Observe that these corrections, revisions, and variations are not to 
accompany speaking or writing. They should follow. We must speak 
and write easily and naturally, according to the thought and feeling in 
the mind. It is true, that we should think before we speak, and also 
before we write. The more important the writing or speaking may be, 
the more and the more carefully should we think. But when writing 
has been commenced, there should be no hesitancy, nor stopping to cor- 
rect. The same rule extends to speaking. Before writing or speaking, 
therefore, let there be meditation and preparation. After, let there be 
correction. But in the very act of writing or speaking, endeavor to go 
right onward. 

By such practice, carried by a student through his whole period of 
study, he may acquire much skill as a writer, and even as a fluent speak- 
er. He will carry on the work without taking time from other employ- 
ments. It will assist him in understanding all branches of study, and in 
reciting in them, while they, in turn, will be constantly promoting this 
acquisition. There is, also, one advantage which these exercises possess 
over those which follow. These are continuous from day to day ; the 
others will have intervals between them. In all acquisitions in language, 
whether in one's own or others, the most important element is unbroken 
continuity from one day to the next. When children are learning to 
speak, they are hearing speaking continuously. 

In the exercises thus far considered, the pupil relies on himself. 

EXERCISES, SYSTEMATIC. 

1089. The next kind of Exercises are Systematic, and include the 
work of an instructor as well as that of the learner. 

Systematic Exercises for speaking correctly and fluently, are furnished 
by recitations at the black-board. Every unbroken recitation there, is 
an exercise in extemporaneous speaking.* 



* In institutions where a more special cultivation of speaking is required, the fol- 
lowing practice can be used. Let the outlines of a subject and the books of reference 
on it, be given to the pupil for investigation. Subsequently, let him give an extem- 
poraneous lecture, or address, upon it. Let this be freely criticized by the instructor, 
in regard to matter, arrangement, expression, and delivery. In this way the lawyer, 
the theologian, and the statesman, could be trained. 



462 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is sufficient for the present design, to indicate the plan for System- 
atic Exercises in Written Composition. 

Written Composition, 
systematic exercises. 

1090. Systematic Written Composition includes; 1. Preliminary Ex- 
ercises (progymnasmata) ; 2. Method for dividing and arranging Sub- 
jects ; 3. Higher Exercises {Rhetorical and Literary), 

Of these, the first pertains to Grammar, the second to Logic, the third 
to Rhetoric and Literature. (See Chapter I., and its recapitulation.) 

Accordingly, as the second and third do not belong to this part of the 
course, the first remains as attendant on Grammar. 

1091. Preliminary Exercises apply to the Expression, or to the Sub- 
ject In the Expression, they apply to the Words, or the Sentences. In 
the Subjects, Exercises apply to subjects familiar, and thus requiring no 
thought or investigation for themselves ; or to those not familiar, and 
which do require some thought or investigation. 

1092. Materials for these preliminary exercises have been abundantly 
given in this Grammar. Words have been classified. Sentences have 
been classified. The general manner of dividing Subjects (though with- 
out the particulars taught by Logic), has been shown in the Categories. 
It should be observed that Categories of Words rightly arranged, give 
laws of arrangement for all Subjects.* 

1093. The method for such exercises regards the material and the 
mode. 

1. As to the material : 

The beginning should be on Words and Sentences, before Subjects. 
The pupil's attention should be given mainly to one thing at one time. 
He should first attend to the expression, and not the thought. 

When Subjects are reached, those used at first should be not only fa- 
miliar, but the most familiar. The work should still be directed mainly 
to the expression, subordinately, to the thought. 

Subjects not perfectly known should be last of all. It is only when 
all the proper habits for expression have been formed, that the attention 
should be concentrated on the thought. 

2. As to the mode : 

Exercises may be with or without dictation. 

* The numerous treatises of Aristotle on the various subjects of human knowledge, 
are divided and treated by such a system. 



WRITTEN EXERCISES! SYSTEMATIC. 463 

If with dictation, the pupils have materials for writing and a book 
(such as a speaker) of good selections in prose and poetry. According 
to the exercise, they may or may not require one of the dictionaries, (al- 
phabetical, etymological, terminational, or categorical). 

(a.) In Words : Read a suitable number, and require for each word, 1. 
Its explanation, such as would be given in a good dictionary, (that is to 
say, its etymology, the verbal definition from its etymology, and the 
logical definition, with remarks); 2. Its synonyms, with their corre- 
spondent derivatives ; 3. The opposites, if they exist, with their syno- 
nyms and the correspondent derivatives. 

Thus proceed through the various exercises given in this Gram- 
mar, for Words. After words have been found, require them to be clas- 
sified. 

(&.) In Sentences: 1. Read a short narrative or description in prose or 
poetry, and require a paraphrase by variation — then a second or even third 
variation of the same ; 2. After this general method, which gives an 
idea of the work to be done, read one sentence, and require the same to 
be expressed in all the forms which each pupil can imagine ; 3. Read a 
sentence, state its form, and then require another of the specified forms 
for sentences, then another, and thus continuously ; 4. Read several sen- 
tences varied in structure, and require them to be broken up and all put 
into one structure, (as, for example, long and compound sentences, to be 
all put into the short and simple form) ; 5. Read several sentences ex- 
pressed with figures, and require them to be varied and written without 
figures ; 6. Read one sentence, and require it to be varied and expressed 
with all the figures that can be applied to it. 

Thus proceed through the Exercises given for Sentences. Require 
Sentences and Figures, when made, to be classified and named. 

(c.) In Subjects : Beginning with those most familiar, require the pupil, 
1. To consider always both the Thing, and the Word which expresses 
the Thing ; 2. To classify the Thing according to the rules given under 
Categories ; 3. To learn from dictionaries the exact force of the Word ; 
4. To tabulate the Subject. 

Let him then write from the table he has thus drawn out. Let a Ver- 
bal Definition from the word, and a Logical from the thing (even though 
imperfect), be always written at the beginning or end. 

Having thus a subject divided, let him next see how that same subject 
can be contrasted, graduated, compared, qualified. Let this be put in 
tabular form, and a second written composition on the same subject be 
drawn from that table. 



464 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Let the pupil always be required at first to write from a tabular view 
of his subject, systematically drawn out. 

Having learned to divide a theme (as, for example, " The Uniform"), ho 
can now treat a proposition (as, for example, " The Uniform is Necessary 
in Armies"). He can divide the subject, and he can divide the predicate, 
and draw out a tabular view of the divisions of each. He is thus pre- 
pared to treat the whole proposition by division. 

Proceeding now to subjects less familiar, the same process is to be ap- 
plied. 

If Exercises be without dictation, a similar order should be pre- 
scribed. 

It belongs to works specially on the subject of Written Composition to 
give more minute particulars, and to furnish examples. 



II. Introduction by Grammar to other Branches op Education. 

1094. If the learner shall have beeen faithful in the exercises prescribed, 
and shall have made each attainment presented in this work, he is prepared 
for other branches of education. 

1095. A general preparation for them all is furnished by Grammar. 
Ignorance of Grammar is a hindrance to the acquisition and in the com- 
munication of any kind of knowledge. Also, the habits of mind and 
the mental discipline resulting from the analysis and construction of sen- 
tences and words, as required in this Grammar, will be found to give 
material assistance in the acquisition of all subjects. Beyond these, 
there is an assistance peculiarly valuable, rendered by the present work. 
The pupil may learn from it under Etymology, the derivation and compo- 
sition of words, and thus how to analyze and understand the technical 
terms used in the different Sciences and Arts, which may come under his 
attention. Our technical phraseology in all the sciences, drawn as it is 
from the Greek and Latin, seems to have been made on the supposition 
that every student of them would understand those languages. Other- 
wise, such a phraseology ought never to have grown up. He who is ig- 
norant of Greek and Latin, or of the formation of English words, uses 
those terms like one speaking in an unknown tongue. The remedy ap- 
plied in the present work, consists in carrying the pupil up to the very 
fountains of words, and impressing upon him the identity of the law of 



r 



METHOD FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES. 465 

formation in foreign words, with that which he sees and has seen since 
he began to speak, in the words of his mother tongue. Let him then 
constantly extend that study of words by means of the key with 
which he has been furnished. Such is the general assistance from 
t Grammar. 

1096. The special assistance is in that which is the subject of Gram- 
mar, namely, Language. 

1097. Other studies than Grammar, which are connected with Lan- 
guage, will lie in foreign languages or in one's own. 

1098. The pupil may wish to acquire the modern, as the French, the 
Italian, the Spanish, of the Latin family ; or, the German and Scandina- 
vian, of the Gothic* He may extend his views farther and include the 
ancient and classic. Some may look more widely, and aim at all the lan- 
guages spoken in Europe, together with the classic. The latter may be 
attained by every educated man of good capacity, within the time usually 
given by the present system to the two dead languages alone. Every 
educated woman may and should acquire every European language by 
the time when the majority have only mastered French. 

This can be done by a right system. The present work has aimed to 
give the foundation for such a system. Three principles are applied. 

1. The classic languages, and all those spoken in Europe, 
are but dialects of one mother tongue. 

2. The process in forming Sounds, Words, and Sentences, 
in all those languages, is similar. 

3. The English, from its composite character, with deposits 
from all languages, is the best instrument, when thoroughly 
studied, for quickly acquiring all the Indo-European tongues. 
Its analogies and principles explain every thing, every where, 
in the sounds of all, and in the stem-words of all. 

Applying these principles to a system conformed to nature and good 
sense, such acquisitions as were named can be made. They are made 
in Europe, and specially in Russia, by merely following a right system, 
by taking languages in their natural connection as all affiliated, and by 
applying in education the present wonderful results of a sound Phi- 
lology. 

* In the military profession a knowledge of the European languages is of great 
utility. 

20* 



466 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Let then the pupil go on from this work to other languages, assured 
that by what he has learned in this work, he has a key to them, furnished 
by his native tongue. 

Let him observe that in each and in all he needs to learn, 1. The Pro- 
nunciation ; 2. The Formation of Words ; 3. The Syntactical Structure. 
This course has prepared for the three. Universal Grammar has given 
the principles of Syntactical Structure common to all languages, and 
thus has prepared for the third. Phonology has taught the elementary 
sounds, which are the same in all tongues, because all men's organs are 
the same. It has also given a simple system of signs for representing 
all sounds uniformly, and has thus prepared for the first. 

For the formation of words, the common process for all Compounds 
and Derivatives has been shown, and also the heads to which all Signifi- 
cations may be reduced, and under which all synonymous words may be 
classified. Those heads are the same in all languages. This work has 
thus prepared for the third. 

If the student will but follow out uniformly in other languages the 
process here applied to his own, he will be surprised and delighted at 
his advancements. Let him, of himself, aim to acquire the words by 
Derivation and Composition, to refer them to their Roots and kindred 
Stems in English, to classify Synonyms in their proper Categories, and 
the common difficulties will vanish. 

Such is the assistance provided for the acquirement of foreign lan- 
guages. 

1099. Other studies than Grammar, connected with one's own lan- 
guage, are in the subjects of Logic, Rhetoric, and Literature. (See 
Chapter I., and its recapitulation.) 

The learner can now go on to these, without the obstacles usually 
found in learning them. 

1. The obstacle in Logic arises from not founding it solely on the anat- 
omy of language, as giving words in classes called Categories. But now, 
as the significations of words have been classified under heads fixed by 
nature, every part of Logic will be found simple and easy. 

2. The obstacle in Rhetoric arises from the want of a previous under- 
standing of the mechanical process of grouping words and moulding 
sentences. In most works on Rhetoric, the pupil is supposed to have a 
knowledge which he does not possess, or those preliminary explanations 
being introduced, interfere with simplicity and clearness. The needed 
knowledge is now acquired. 

3. The obstacle in works on Literature, designed to give him models 



TRANSITION TO SUBSEQUENT SUBJECTS. 467 

for style, is similar. The elements with which the writer works for pro- 
ducing his effects not being known, the pupil knows not how to analyze 
his models, or to imitate them. Ifhese elements have now been fully 
examined. 

Accordingly, after this preparation by Grammar, the subjects next in 
order, belonging to a course on Language, are Logic, Rhetoric, and Liter- 
ature. 



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